The enormous burning of fossil fuel and deforestation have caused an increase in the atmospheric CO₂ concentration ([CO₂]) during the last century. This will invariably have profound direct and indirect effects on plant carbon metabolism. The majority of research on the effects of CO₂ enrichment on plants are short-term and are done on other crops, but very little have been done on barley. This project aimed to determine the effects of long-term CO₂ enrichment on photosynthesis, growth and grain yield on barley. Hordeum vulgare L. cvs Stirling and Schooner plants were grown from seeds in controlled environment chambers at ambient (350) and elevated (600) μmol molˉ¹ [CO₂]. Measurements of net assimilation rate (NAR), photosynthetic pigments content and growth parameters were started 7 days after germination (DAG) and continued until senescence. The anatomy of matured fully developed leaves was also monitored. Elevated [CO₂l resulted in an increase in NAR in the two cultivars from days 7 until 14, after which the stimulation of NAR of CO₂-enriched plants started to decrease. At the onset of senescence, NAR was almost equal in plants grown under both ambient and elevated [CO₂]. The response of assimilation as a function of internal [CO₂l (C₁) at the end of the experimental period showed a significant decrease in both the initial slope of the A/C₁ curves and the CO₂-saturated photosynthetic rates in the two cultivars. Stirling showed no significant changes in the content of chlorophyll α,chlorophyll б or in total carotenoids. However, Schooner showed a stimulation in chlorophyll α content at day 7, but decreased at day 28. Chlorophyll б and total carotenoids content were not affected by CO₂ enrichment. While total above-ground biomass was not affected by elevated [CO₂] in the two cultivars, total plant height decreased significantly after 14 days in Stirling whereas no significant change occurred in Schooner throughout the experimental period. Leaf area was not significantly affected by CO₂ enrichment in the two cultivars although the leaves in CO₂ enriched plants were slightly shorter. Anatomical studies reveal that leaf thickness was significantly increased by CO₂ enrichment in Stirling, but the increase was not significant in Schooner. Both cultivars did not show any significant effect on chloroplast morphology and ultrastructure as a consequence of elevated CO₂ exposure. No signs of starch accumulation were evident in variety Schooner, but Stirling showed some form of starch accumulation, under increased atmospheric [CO₂]. Elevated CO₂ resulted in a significant reduction by more than 50 % in the number of grain yield per plant in both Stirling and Schooner. Results from this study therefore indicate that CO₂ enrichment will not be beneficial in terms of growth and yield in this important crop.

The transduction of stress signals in plants is known to involve complex hysiological responses. In D. salina a range of stresses results in hyperaccumulation of ft-carotene and an understanding of stress responses in this organism has important biotechnological implications. In this thesis an attempt was made to elucidate the physiological components involved and establish a role for pH in response to high light stress. In order to achieve this the effect of high light stress on photosynthesis and cell productivity was measured. Results showed that photosynthetic carbon assimilation, oxygen evolution and cellular productivity was initially inhibited by exposure to high light intensities, but this inhibition was transient and was overcome by a rapid increase in all three parameters. The response of the carbon pool intermediates was also investigated. It was shown that on exposure to high light ft-carotene declined but then showed a rapid increase after about 4 hours of exposure. It was also demonstrated that the initial loss of ft-carotene was due to loss of this pigment from the photosynthetic pigment bed and that the hyper-accumulation of ft-carotene was due to accumulation of ft-carotene in lipoidal globules located in the chloroplast stroma. It was further demonstrated that there was mass movement of carbon in the xanthophyll cycle shortly after exposure to high light. This was characterized by the de-epoxidation of violaxanthin to antheraxanthin with a further de-epoxidation to zeaxanthin, thereby decreasing the epoxidation state of the cycle. Furthermore, it was shown that there was relocation of carbon from violaxanthin to the plant growth regulator abscisic acid. It was also shown for the first time in D. salina that the production of ft-carotene and operation of the epoxidation state of the xanthophyll cycle has a periodicity which is established after exposure to successive cycles of a light regime. Chlorophyll fluorescence was used together with well established ammonia stress responses to acquire a general overview of energy dissipation from the photosynthetic pigment bed. In conjunction with an understanding of xanthophyll cycle operation during exposure to high light stress it has been possible to establish a relationship between chlorophyll florescence, xanthophyll cycle operation and intracellular pH. It was also shown using chlorophyll fluorescence that after 4 hour exposure to high light a maximum fluorescence peak could no longer be induced indicating a transition at about this point from a state of reversibility to commitment of the full stress response. Nuclear magnetic resonance was used to follow intracellular pH fluxes during exposure to high light. A novel technique was developed for studying photosynthetically active organisms in the dark using nuclear magnetic resonance. These results showed that on exposure to high light stress there is rapid acidification of the chloroplast stroma and to a lesser degree of the acidic vacuole. The pH of these compartments is re-established after about 4 hours which is co-incident with the onset of fl-carotene hyper-accumulation and the loss of the induction of the chlorophyll fluorescence peak indicating an intimate relationship for fl-carotene, chlorophyll fluorescence, xanthophyll cycle operation and pH. The results from this study allow for the proposal of a general physiological stress transduction response mechanism for D. salina which is common for a range of different stresses and where intracellular pH plays a central role.

The C4 cycle represents a series of biochemical and anatomical modifications that are targeted to overcome the effects of photorespiration caused by the oxygenase capability of Ribulose Bisphosphate Carboxylase/Oxygenase (RuBisCO). The cycle has evolved independently in over 60 lineages, which suggests that recruitment of genes into the C4 cycle is a relatively easy process. However, the mechanisms by which the anatomy and cell-specificity of the components of the C4 cycle is achieved is poorly understood. Preliminary work in maize indicated several components of the C4 cycle may be targeted by microRNAs (miRNAs). To explore this, a library of sRNA sequences from mature leaf tissue of the model C4 species Cleome gynandra L. was generated and then searched against a list of expressed sequence tag sequences for candidate genes of the C4 cycle. To complement this, transgenic C. gynandra containing the viral p19 protein, which is capable of suppressing miRNA activity, were produced. A limited subset of the candidate C4 genes showed a high level of sRNA read alignment. In C. gynandra plants expressing p19 photosynthesis was compromised and transcripts of several genes (most notably RbcS and RCA) were upregulated. These data were complemented by examining the effect of illumination on developing C. gynandra cotyledons, and attempts to generate a hybrid between C. gynandra and the C3 C. hassleriana Chodat. RbcS also showed elevated abundance in etiolated cotyledons, although this rapidly declined after illumination. The remainder of the C4 genes profiled accumulated in etiolated tissue, but were upregulated within 6 hours of illumination. Therefore, this study has illustrated that miRNA activity may play a role in maintaining the C4 photosynthetic cycle at optimum efficiency, although it has not been possible to identify at which point(s) this regulation is applied. Secondly, RbcS appears to be subject to multiple regulatory mechanisms in C. gynandra, and it is possible that miRNAs have a role in negatively regulating expression of RbcS.

GLK1 and GLK2 transcription factors have been suggested to be involved in the regulation of chloroplast development, organic nitrogen signaling, disease resistance and circadian rhythmicity (Waters et al. 2009; Gutiérrez et al. 2008; Savitch et al. 2007; Sprott et al. 2010). This implies that multiple factors may play roles in regulation of GLK genes. In the present study, transcriptional regulation of GLK1 and GLK2 in Arabidopsis by various endogenous and environmental stimuli was investigated with the objective of elucidating the primary signalling pathway affecting expression of these two genes. Collectively, results of GLK1 and GLK2 expression in response to the experimental treatments of Arabidopsis point to the regulation of the two genes by changes in photosynthetic metabolism and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, and by organic nitrogen signalling. Changes in ROS levels and organic nitrogen signalling may also affect the two genes indirectly by interfering with or altering photosynthetic metabolism.

Le cytochrome b6f est un complexe majeur de la chaîne photosynthétique oxygénique de par son activité quinol:plastocyanine oxydoréductase, qui contribue à la formation d’ATP via un transfert d’électrons couplé à un transfert de protons. La présence d’un hème c particulier lié par une seule liaison covalente, l’hème ci, au sein du site de réduction de quinone Qi du cytochrome b6f constitue une différence notable en comparaison avec son homologue de la chaîne respiratoire, le cytochrome bc1. Un cytochrome b6f dépourvu d’hème ci est dégradé, sa faible accumulation ne permet pas une croissance photosynthétique. Cette observation a donné lieu à une recherche de suppresseurs permettant une plus grande accumulation de cytochrome b6f dont la fonction même altérée, serait suffisante pour assurer une croissance photosynthétique. Cette approche génétique de recherche de suppresseur a été entreprise chez Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Ce travail de thèse a permis l’isolation et la caractérisation d’un mutant de la protéase FtsH1 (mutation R420C qui affecterait l’activité ATPasique). Le mutant ftsh1-1 s’est révélé être un outil puissant pour l’étude fonctionnelle de complexes mutés autrement dégradés. Une approche multidisciplinaire combinant expériences de génétique, biochimie, physiologie et biophysique a démontré notamment que : (i) le mutant QiKO, dont le complexe b6f est dépourvu des hèmes bh et ci, peut pousser de manière phototrophique malgré un Q-cycle cassé, (ii) l’absence d’hème ci lié covalemment, pour le mutant Rccb2, génère une photosensibilité exacerbée en présence d’oxygène, ce qui sous-tend un rôle pour l’hème ci dans un environnement riche en oxygène, (iii) la protéase FtsH exerce un contrôle qualité global des complexes majeurs photosynthétiques. / Central in oxygenic photosynthesis, the cytochrome b6f complex, couples electron transfer to proton translocation across the thylakoid membrane via its quinol:plastocyanin oxidoreductase activity, contributing to ATP formation. Cytochrome b6f complex differs from its respiratory homolog, the bc1 complex, by the presence of an additional heme, heme ci located within the quinone reduction site Qi and attached by a unique thioether bond. Mutants lacking heme ci show low accumulation of partially functional b6f complex and, hence, cannot grow phototrophically. This grounded a screen for suppressor mutations that would restore higher accumulation of b6f complexes whose function, even if compromised, would sustain phototrophic growth.The genetic suppressor approach undertook in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii during this PhD thesis led to the isolation and characterisation of the ftsh1-1 protease mutant (mutation R420C which should affect ATP hydrolysis). The mutant ftsh1-1 proved to be a versatile tool for the functional study of otherwise degraded proteins. The combination of genetic, biochemical, physiological and biophysical experiments demonstrated notably that: (i) a QiKO mutant, whose b6f complexes are devoid of both bh and ci hemes, can grow phototrophically despite a broken Q-cycle, (ii) the absence of covalently bound heme ci, in the Rccb2 mutant, triggers photosensivity enhanced in the presence of O2 supporting a role for heme ci in oxygen rich environment, (iii) FtsH is involved in the maintenance of the main photosynthetic complexes.

A luz age influenciando direta e indiretamente aspectos fisiológicos das macroalgas como crescimento, desenvolvimento, reprodução, desempenho fotossintetizante e aclimatação. A radiação fotossinteticamente ativa (PAR) é a faixa de luz visível compreendida entre 400 e 700 nm, usada pelos organismos para execução da fotossíntese. Os costões rochosos estão sujeitos a uma variabilidade constante de luz que impõe às macroalgas, o desenvolvimento de eficientes estratégias com o objetivo de otimizar a fotossíntese e manter seu crescimento, além de evitarem a fotoinibição e o fotodano. O principal objetivo desta pesquisa foi caracterizar as repostas fisiológicas e composição química de Pterocladiella capillacea (Rhodophyta, Gelidiales) submetida a duas irradiâncias, 60 e 300 μmol fótons.m-2.s-1 ao longo de oito dias. Os parâmetros analisados foram: taxa de crescimento, desempenho fotossintetizante, teor de carbono, hidrogênio e nitrogênio intracelular, conteúdo pigmentar (ficobiliproteínas, clorofila a e carotenoides), proteínas solúveis totais, potencial antioxidante e teor de aminoácidos tipo micosporinas (MAAs). Por ser uma alga de sombra e não tolerar altas irradiâncias, Pterocladiella capillacea mostrou fotossensibilidade frente ao tratamento de maior intensidade luminosa, no entanto não foi evidenciado fotodano, indicando que a espécie possuiu mecanismos de repostas de tolerância eficientes, em especial ao dissipar energia não fotoquímica não regulada. Dessa forma, P.capillacea mostrou alta eficiência em fotoaclimatação e necessitou de pouca intensidade luminosa para manutenção de seus processos vitais. Os resultados do potencial antioxidante mostraram que a espécie é fonte natural de antioxidantes e pode ser utilizada como nutracêutico. Tal fato pode ser melhor explorado, já que o aumento de luz estimulou as defesas antioxidantes da espécie. A irradiância PAR em 300 μmol fótons.m-2.s-1propiciou o acúmulo de MAAs em P.capillacea, não foram observadas diferenças qualitativas na espécie ao longo do tempo, nem entre as irradiâncias. Foi identificada apenas o MAA chinorina, indicando que P.capillacea é fonte in natura deste composto amplamente utilizado pela indústria. Os resultados deste estudo complementam trabalhos ecofisiológicos prévios e fornecem subsídios a respeito da estratégia de vida de P. capillacea frente às mudanças em intensidades luminosa / The light acts directly and indirectly influencing physiological aspects of macroalgae such as growth, development, reproduction, photosynthetic performance and acclimatization. The photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) is the visible light that range between 400 and 700 nm, used by organisms for photosynthesis process. The rocky shores are under to a constant variability of light that imposes on macroalgae the development of efficient strategies in order to optimize photosynthesis and maintain the growth, avoiding photoinhibition and photodamage. The main objective of this research was to characterize the physiological responses and chemical composition of Pterocladiella capillacea (Rhodophyta, Gelidiales) submitted to two irradiances, 60 and 300 μmol fótons.m-2.s-1 over eight days. The parameters analyzed were: growth rate, photosynthetic performance, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen intracellular, pigment content (phycobiliproteins, chlorophyll and carotenoids), total soluble protein, antioxidant potential and Mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs). Although, P. capillacea is a shadow-type of seaweed and not tolerate high irradiance, Pterocladiella capillacea showed photosensitivity against the treatment of higher light intensity, but was not observed photodamage, indicating that the species possessed reset mechanisms of efficient tolerance, especially to dissipate photochemical energy unregulated. Thus, P. capillacea showed high efficiency in photoacclimation and required little light intensity to maintain their life processes. The results of the antioxidant potential showed that P. capillacea is a natural source of antioxidants and may be used as a nutraceutical. This can be better exploited, since the increase of light stimulated the antioxidant defenses of the species. Irradiance PAR at 300 μmol fótons.m-2.s-1 provided the MAAs accumulation in P. capillacea, there were no qualitative differences in species over time, or between irradiance. It was only identified the MAA chinorina, indicating that P. capillacea is a source in nature of this compound widely used by industry. The results of this study complement previous ecophysiological works and provide subsidies regarding P. capillacea life´s strategy to the changes in light intensities

A Guzmania monostachia é uma espécie de bromélia heteroblástica, ou seja, na fase juvenil, ela apresenta a forma atmosférica e na fase adulta, ela adquire uma estrutura chamada de tanque, que pode armazenar água e nutrientes em momentos de seca esporádica. Ela também é reconhecida por ser C3-CAM facultativa, podendo ser induzida ao CAM através de estímulos ambientais como o a escassez d\'água. Estudos com outras espécies competentes para a expressão do CAM, há relatos de que tecidos jovens expressariam preferencialmente a fotossíntese C3 e passariam a expressar o CAM à medida que se tornassem maduros. No Laboratório de Fisiologia do Desenvolvimento Vegetal a indução do CAM em plantas adultas da espécie G. monostachia por déficit hídrico foi estudada e pôde-se constatar que essa bromélia possui folhas com regiões funcionais distintas: a porção basal seria responsável pela absorção de água e nutrientes e a porção apical encarregada de realizar, principalmente, a fotossíntese. Contudo, ainda não se possuía informação sobre como a ontogenia e as mudanças morfológicas estariam influenciando a competência para a expressão do CAM em folhas inteiras e nas diferentes porções foliares de G. monostachia. A fim de se caracterizar o CAM nesta espécie ao longo da ontogenia, foram selecionadas plantas em 3 fases ontogenéticas (Atmosférica, Tanque-1 e Tanque-2) e das fases Tanque-1 e 2 foram separados grupos de folhas representando 3 estágios de desenvolvimento (F1 - as 7 mais internas da roseta, F2- as 7 folhas seguintes da roseta e F3 - as 7 folhas localizadas mais na base da roseta). As plantas foram submetidas a 7 dias de déficit hídrico por meio da suspensão de rega. Outra coleta de material vegetal foi realizada com plantas Tanque-2 separando-se as folhas em grupos representando os mesmos 3 estágios de desenvolvimento utilizados no experimental anterior e dividindo-as em porções basal e apical. Medidas morfométricas foram feitas para caracterizar cada fase ontogenética. O teor de água dos tecidos das folhas foi determinado e o CAM foi detectado através do ensaio enzimático da PEPC, da MDH e da quantificação dos ácidos orgânicos (ácido cítrico e málico). As plantas Tanque-2 apresentaram mais que o dobro da capacidade de estocagem de água comparativamente às plantas Tanque-1. As plantas atmosféricas sofreram as maiores perdas de água em sua folhas (aproximadamente 50%); já as plantas com tanque tiveram decréscimos mais discretos no teor hídrico (em torno de 15%). Plantas de todas as fases ontogenéticas acumularam significativamente ácido málico durante a noite, evidenciando que, independente da ontogenia, as plantas foram competentes para expressar o CAM. De maneira semelhante, tanto as folhas mais jovens quanto as mais maduras exibiram acúmulos significativos de ácido málico, indicando que elas foram capazes de expressar o CAM nos 3 estágios de desenvolvimento escolhidos para este estudo. Portanto, no conjunto dos experimentais realizados, sugere-se que o fator mais importante para a expressão do CAM em plantas de G. monostachia seja o teor de água dos tecidos foliares e não a ontogenia. Plantas atmosféricas apresentaram a maior perda de água (aproximadamente 50%) concomitantemente à expressão do CAM. Já as regiões apicais dos grupos de folhas F1 das plantas Tanque-2 exibiram um decréscimo de 7% com acúmulo noturno de ácido málico e os grupos F2 e F3 perderam 12% da água de seus tecidos, resultando na inibição do CAM. Há indícios que o transporte de água nas plantas com tanque sob estresse hídrico ocorra das folhas mais maduras para as folhas mais jovens. Aparentemente, plantas jovens atmosféricas de G. monostachia possuem a capacidade de manter seu metabolismo mais ativo mesmo em condições que resultem em uma baixa quantidade de água nos tecidos foliares, indicando um certo grau de tolerância à seca. Ao contrário, nas plantas com tanque, essa capacidade parece não ser tão acentuada, sugerindo que esta fase esteja mais relacionada com estratégias de evitação à seca / Guzmania monostachia is a species of heteroblastic bromeliad, in other words, whereas in the juvenile phase, it assumes the atmospheric form, in the adult, it acquires a structure called a tank, by which water and nutrients can be stored in moments of sporadic drought. It is also recognized through being C3-CAM facultative, thus inducible to CAM through environmental stimuli, such as the lack of water. In the young plants of other species capable of CAM expression, there are reports of preferential C3 photosynthesis expression in young tissues, leading to CAM expression on reaching maturity. In the Laboratory of Plant Development Physiology, studies were made of CAM induction in adult plants of the species G. monostachia during the lack of water at times of drought. It was noted that this bromeliad possessed leaves with distinct functional regions: whereas the basal portion was responsible for the absorption of both water and nutrients, the apical was mainly responsible for photosynthesis. Nonetheless, there was no available information on how ontogeny and morphological changes could influence competence for CAM expression throughout the whole leaf, as well as in the different parts. In order to characterize CAM in this species throughout ontogeny, selection was concentrated on plants in the three ontogenetic phases (Atmospheric, Tank-1 and Tank-2), as well as in the Tank-1 and Tank-2 phases by separating groups of leaves representing the three stages of development in the rosette, viz., Stage1 - the seven inner-most leaves, Stage2 - the next seven, and Stage3 - the seven located more at the base. By suspending irrigation, all the plants were submitted to 7 days without water, whereupon further material was collected from Tank-2 plants. The leaves thus obtained were first divided into groups representing the same three developmental phases as used in the preceding experiment, and then separated into basal and apical portions. Morphometric measurement was applied to the characterization of each ontogenetic phase. Tissue water content in the leaves was defined, and CAM detected through PEPC enzymatic assaying, MDH, and organic acid (citric and malic) quantification. Tank-2 plants presented more than double the capacity to store water, when compared to Tank-1 plants. Whereas atmospheric plants underwent the greatest leaf-water loss (around 50%), the loss was less in those with tanks (around 15%). Significant nocturnal malic acid accumulation in plants in all the ontogenetic phases, placed in evidence plant competency for CAM expression, independent of the stage of development. Likewise, significant malic acid accumulation in both young leaves and more mature ones indicated their capacity for CAM expression in the three stages of development chosen for the present study. Thus, in the experiments carried out, it can be presumed that the most important factor for CAM expression in G. monostachia plants is leaf-tissue water content, and not ontogeny. Atmospheric plants presented the highest water loss (around 50%), which was concomitant with CAM expression. On the other hand, in the apical regions of Tank-2 plants, there was a drop of 7% in water content with nocturnal malic acid accumulation in stage-1 leaves, and a loss of 12% in tissue water in those in stage 2 and 3, with the consequential CAM inhibition. There is every indication that water-transport in tank plants undergoing water-stress occurs from more mature leaves to those younger. Apparently the more active metabolism in young G. monostachia atmospheric plants, even under conditions inducing low leaf-tissue water content, indicates a certain degree of drought tolerance. On the contrary, although this capacity in tank plants appears to be less accentuated, the tank phase is apparently more related to strategies for avoiding the effects of drought

Photoinduced electron transfer in self-assembled via axial coordination porphyrin-fullerene dyads is investigated. Fullerene functionalized with imidazole and fullerenes functionalized with pyridine are chosen as electron acceptors, while zinc pophyrin derivatives are utilized as electron donors. The electron withdrawing ability of halogen atoms make the porphyrin ring electrophilic, which explained the binding of (F20TPP)Zn with fullerene derivatives having the highest binding constant around 105M-1. Another important observation is that the fullerene imidazole binding to zinc pophyrin had higher stability than fullerene pyridine-porphyrin dyad. Computational DFT B3LYP-21G(*) calculations are used to study the geometric and electronic structures. The HOMO and LUMO was found to be located on the porphyrin and fullerene entities, respectively. Photoinduced electron transfer is investigated by the steady-state absorption and emission, differential pulse voltammetry, and nanosecond and femtosecond transient absorption studies. The measurements provided the same conclusion that the increasing number of the halogen atoms on the porphyrin ring leads to the higher binding of porphyrin-fullerene supramolecular dyads and efficient charge separation and charge recombination processes.

Carbon dioxide is a viable resource, if used as a raw material for bioprocessing. It is abundant and can be collected as a byproduct from industrial processes. Globally, photosynthetic organisms utilize around 6’000 TW (terawatt) of solar energy to fix ca. 800 Gt (gigaton) of CO2 in the planets largest carbon-capture process. Photosynthesis combines light harvesting, charge separation, catalytic water splitting, generation of reduction equivalents (NADH), energy (ATP) production and CO2 fixation into one highly interconnected and regulated process. While this simplicity makes photosynthetic production of commodity interesting, yet photosynthesis suffers from low energy efficiency, which translates in an extensive footprint for solar biofuels production conditions that store < 2% of solar energy. Electron transfer processes form the core of photosynthesis. At moderate light intensity, the electron transport chains reach maximum transfer rates and only work when photons are at appropriate wavelengths, rendering the process susceptible to oxidative damage, which leads to photo-inhibition and loss of efficiency. Based on our fundamental analysis of the specialized tasks in photosynthesis, we aimed to optimize the efficiency of these processes separately, then combine them in an artificial photosynthesis (AP) process that surpasses the low efficiency of natural photosynthesis. Therefore, by combining photovoltaic light harvesting with electrolytic water splitting or CO2 reduction in combination with microbiological conversion of electrochemical products to higher valuable compounds, we developed an electro-microbial carbon capture and conversion setups that capture CO2 into the targeted bioplastic; polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB). Based on the type of the electrochemical products, and the microorganism that either (i) convert products formed by electrochemical reduction of CO2, e.g. formate (using inorganic cathodes), or (ii) use electrochemically produced H2 to reduce CO2 into higher compounds (autotrophy), three AP setups were designed: one-pot, two-pot, and three-pot setups. We evaluated the kinetic (microbial uptake and conversion, electrochemical reduction) and thermodynamics (efficiencies) of the separate processes, and the overall process efficiency of AP compared to photosynthesis. We address the influence of several parameters on efficiencies and time-space yields, e.g. salinity, pH, electrodes, media, partial pressures of H2 and CO2. These data provide a valuable basis to establish a highly efficient and continuous AP process in the future.

Irrigated lands generate crop yields that are more than double those of rain-fed lands. Unfortunately, these systems are often heavily reliant on water supplies, which are diminishing globally. Alternative use of impaired quality waters for irrigation can reduce soil quality through secondary salinization, affecting plant health and yields. With salinization of agricultural lands increasing around the world, further understanding the impacts of this on crop production are required. The aim of this research is to assess the influence of soil salinity and nutrient stress on leaf photosynthetic pigments, gas exchange and biochemical photosynthetic parameters in wheat plants. The feasibility of estimating key photosynthetic pigments from in-situ leaf hyperspectral data is examined using vegetation indices, linear regression models and a random forest machine learning technique. Results showed that salinity stress presented a significant increase in the chlorophyll and carotenoid contents per leaf area, although the total pigment contents per plant was reduced as a consequence of lower production of leaf matter. While nutrient application enhanced the photosynthetic pigment content per leaf area, its interaction with salinity stress was found to be significant and varied with salinity level. A strong positive relationship was found between SPAD-502 measurements and leaf chlorophyll content and confirmed that SPAD-based retrieval of photosynthetic pigments can be undertaken with confidence irrespective of any prevailing stress in wheat plants. Photosynthetic parameters directly related to biomass accumulation (such as Vcmax, Jmax and gs) varied considerably with stress levels and growth stages, with high values of these parameters observed at low stress and in periods of more vigorous growth. Employing a random forest machine learning approach with all hyperspectral data as input features significantly improved the predictability and accuracy relative to the univariate linear regression model. However, using vegetation indices as direct predictors further improved the estimation accuracy and robustness of the random forest model. Overall, the findings from this research have implications for large scale estimation of vegetation photosynthetic traits from remotely sensed data, and offer a mechanism by which early detection of stress may be monitored, providing a means for enacting a timely crop management response.