Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The endogenous poliaminas, putrescine, spermidina and spermine are aliphatics amines that are present in high concentrations in the central nervous system (SNC). The action of the poliamines involves the modulation of several ionic channels, including the subtype of glutamatergic N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDA). The processes mediated by NMDA receptor include synaptic plasticity and formation of neural circuitry. It is believed that these plasticities happening in some cerebral areas specifies, as the hippocampus, are critical for the learning and memory processes. It is described that spermidine (SPD), as well as the protein kinase are directly involved with processes of formation of the memory. Therefore, we investigated the involvement of the Ca2+ dependent (PKC) and cAMP-dependent (PKA) protein kinase in the facilitatory effect induced by SPD on the memory of males Wistar rats. For that, the rats were bilaterally cannulae in the hippocampus, after the surgical recovery, the animals were trained in the inhibitory avoidance task and injected (0.5 μL) bilaterally in the hippocampus. A subset of the animals was euthanized 30 or 180 min after injections and activity of PKC, PKA and cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), in the hippocampus, was determined for Western blot. The other animals had a testing session, 24 h pos-training in the inhibitory avoidance apparatus. The post-training administration of the 3-[1-(Dimethylaminopropyl)indol-3-yl]-4-(indol-3-yl)maleimide hydrochloride [GF 109203X, 2.5 ρmol intrahippocampal (ih)], inhibitor of PKC, N-[2-bromocinnamylamino ethyl]-(5-isoquinoline sulfonamide) [H-89, 0.5 ρmol intrahippocampal (ih)], PKA inhibitor or arcaine (0.02 nmol ih), the antagonist of the NMDA receptor polyamine-binding site prevented memory improvement induced by SPD (0.2 nmol ih). The SPD (0.2 nmol), in the hippocampus, facilitated PKC 30 min, PKA and CREB phosphorylation 180 min after administration, and increased translocation of the catalytic subunit of PKA into the nucleus. GF 109203X, (2.5 ρmol) prevented the stimulatory effect of SPD on PKC, PKA and CREB phosphorylation. Furthermore, arcaine (0.02 nmol) and H-89 (0.5 ρmol) prevented the stimulatory effect of SPD on PKA and CREB phosphorylation 180 min after administration. None of the drugs studies altered the locomotor activity of the animals. These results suggest that the facilitatory effect of the memory induced by the ih administration SPD involves the cross talk between PKC and PKA/CREB, with PKC activation follow by PKA/CREB pathways activation in rats. / As poliaminas endógenas, putrescina, espermidina e espermina, são aminas alifáticas que estão presentes em altas concentrações no sistema nervoso central (SNC). As poliaminas modulam diversos canais iônicos, incluindo o subtipo de receptor glutamatérgico N-metil D-aspartato (NMDA). Os processos mediados pelo receptor NMDA incluem plasticidade sináptica e formação de circuitos neurais. Acredita-se que estas plasticidades ocorrendo em algumas regiões cerebrais específicas, como o hipocampo, são críticas para os processos de aprendizado e memória. Está descrito que a espermidina (SPD), assim como as proteínas quinase, esta diretamente envolvida com os processos de formação da memória. Assim, investigamos o envolvimento das proteínas quinases dependente de AMPc (PKA) e dependente de Ca2+ (PKC) sobre a melhora da memória induzida por SPD em ratos. Para isso, ratos Wistar machos foram canulados bilateralmente no hipocampo e após a recuperação cirúrgica treinados na tarefa de esquiva inibitória. Imediatamente após o treino os animais receberam através das cânulas (0,5 μl/sítio) a administração de N-[2-bromocinamilamino etil]-(5-isoquinolina sulfonamida) [H-89, 0,5 ρmol intrahipocampal (ih)], inibidor da PKA, 3-[1-(Dimetilaminopropil)indol-3-il]-4-(indol-3-il)maleimida hidrochloride [GF 109203X, 2,5 ρmol (ih)], inibidor da PKC, arcaína (0,02 nmol, ih), antagonista do sítio de ligação das poliaminas no receptor NMDA ou SPD (0,2 nmol, ih). Um grupo de animais foi eutanasiado 30 ou 180 minutos após a administração das drogas e a atividade da PKC, PKA e o elemento ligante responsivo ao AMPc (CREB), no hipocampo, foi determinada por Western blot. Os outros animais foram submetidos à sessão de teste, 24 horas depois do treino na esquiva inibitória. A administração de H-89, GF 109203X ou arcaína preveniu a melhora da memória induzida por SPD. A SPD (0,2 nmol) aumentou a fosforilação da PKC 30 min, da PKA e do CREB 180 min após a injeção e aumentou a translocação da subunidade catalítica da PKA do citosol para o núcleo. GF 109203X, (2,5 ρmol) preveniu o efeito estimulatório da SPD sobre a fosforilação da PKC, PKA e CREB. Além disso, arcaína (0,02 nmol) e H- 89 (0,5 ρmol) preveniram o efeito estimulatório da SPD sobre a fosforilação da PKA e CREB 180 min depois da injeção. Nenhuma das drogas alterou a atividade motora dos animais. Estes resultados sugerem que o efeito facilitatório da memória induzido pela administração ih de SPD envolve um cruzamento entre PKC e PKA/CREB, com a ativação inicial da PKC, seguida da ativação da cascata PKA/CREB em ratos. Assim, poderemos determinar um possível mecanismo de ação da espermidina nos processos de formação da memória, e desta forma, fornecer subsídios para o desenvolvimento de fármacos.

abstract: In somatic cells, the mitotic spindle apparatus is centrosomal and several isoforms of Protein Kinase C (PKC) have been associated with the mitotic spindle, but their role in stabilizing the mitotic spindle is unclear. Other protein kinases such as, Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3â (GSK3â) also have been shown to be associated with the mitotic spindle. In the study in chapter 2, we show the enrichment of active (phosphorylated) PKCæ at the centrosomal region of the spindle apparatus in metaphase stage of 3T3 cells. In order to understand whether the two kinases, PKC and GSK3â are associated with the mitotic spindle, first, the co-localization and close molecular proximity of PKC isoforms with GSK3â was studied in metaphase cells. Second, the involvement of inactive GSK3â in maintaining an intact mitotic spindle was shown. Third, this study showed that addition of a phospho-PKCæ specific inhibitor to cells can disrupt the mitotic spindle microtubules. The mitotic spindle at metaphase in mouse fibroblasts appears to be maintained by PKCæ acting through GSK3â. The MAPK pathway has been implicated in various functions related to cell cycle regulation. MAPKK (MEK) is part of this pathway and the extracellular regulated kinase (ERK) is its known downstream target. GSK3â and PKCæ also have been implicated in cell cycle regulation. In the study in chapter 3, we tested the effects of inhibiting MEK on the activities of ERK, GSK3â, PKCæ, and á-tubulin. Results from this study indicate that inhibition of MEK did not inhibit GSK3â and PKCæ enrichment at the centrosomes. However, the mitotic spindle showed a reduction in the pixel intensity of microtubules and also a reduction in the number of cells in each of the M-phase stages. A peptide activation inhibitor of ERK was also used. Our results indicated a decrease in mitotic spindle microtubules and an absence of cells in most of the M-phase stages. GSK3â and PKCæ enrichment were however not inhibited at the centrosomes. Taken together, the kinases GSK3â and PKCæ may not function as a part of the MAPK pathway to regulate the mitotic spindle. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Molecular and Cellular Biology 2012

La néphropathie diabétique (ND), principale cause d’insuffisance rénale chronique, est caractérisée par une dysfonction des podocytes rénaux. Cette dysfonction podocytaire peut être causée par une résistance à l’insuline induite suite à l’exposition des podocytes aux acides gras libres (AGL). L’un des mécanismes par lequel les AGL réduisent les actions de l’insuline serait l’activation de la voie de Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). Les objectifs sont de caractériser les mécanismes de résistance à l’insuline par les AGL dans les podocytes et d’étudier l’implication de la voie du complexe mTORC1 menant à la ND dans un modèle de diabète de type 2. In vivo, la fonction et la pathologie rénale des souris diabétiques de type 2 (db/db) ont été évaluées. Des podocytes murins ont été cultivés pendant 96 h en conditions normales (5,6 mM, NG) ou élevées (25 mM, HG) de glucose avec ou sans palmitate (25 μM) pour les dernières 24 h. In vitro, les podocytes exposés en HG ont montré une diminution de l’activation d’Akt induite par l’insuline. Le palmitate seul a diminué de 50% l’activation d’Akt alors que la combinaison HG + palmitate a accentué cette diminution en la réduisant de 72%. Cette inhibition se ferait via la phosphorylation en sérine d’IRS1. En effet, en présence de palmitate, la phosphorylation d’IRS1 (ser307) est augmentée d’environ 2 fois. De plus, la phosphorylation d’IRS1 par le palmitate est corrélée à une augmentation de la phosphorylation de mTOR (ser2448) et de son substrat S6 (ser240/244). L’inhibition de la voie de signalisation de l’insuline par la voie mTOR serait due à l’activation de la PKC-α suite à une stimulation au palmitate. Pour ce qui est de mTORC2, la phosphorylation inhibitrice de Rictor (thr1135) augmente de 47% en présence de palmitate. In vivo, dans les souris db/db, l’augmentation des marqueurs de la ND (albuminurie, expansion du mésangium, hypertrophie du glomérule et expression de TGF-beta) est associée à une élévation de la p-mTOR, p-Rictor et de p-S6 dans les glomérules rénaux. En conclusion, le phénomène de résistance à l’insuline par les AGL dans les podocytes serait causé par l’activation de PKC-α/mTORC1 menant à la phosphorylation d’IRS1 en sérine 307, un mécanisme complémentaire aux actions de l’hyperglycémie, et contribuant de façon indépendante à la progression de la ND. De plus, l’inhibition du complexe mTORC2 contribue à la diminution de la signalisation de la voie de l’insuline. / Abstract : Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is the leading cause of chronic renal failure in diabetic patients and is characterized by the dysfunction of podocytes. Our laboratory has shown that hyperglycemia caused podocyte insulin unresponsiveness and cell death via the upregulation of PKC- and SHP-1, a tyrosine phosphatase. In contrast, free fatty acids (FFA)-induced insulin resistance in podocytes is not associated with SHP-1 expression. Thus, other signaling pathways could be implicated including the activation of the Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) complexes pathway. The aim of this study was to investigate the insulin resistance mechanisms caused by FFA in podocytes leading to DN in type 2 diabetes. In vitro, cultured podocytes were exposed to normal (5.6 mmol/L; NG) or high glucose (25 mmol/L; HG) levels for 96 h and to palmitate (25 µmol/L) the last 24h with or without insulin stimulation (10 nmol/L). As previously showed, podocytes exposed to HG decreased Akt activation upon insulin stimulation. Palmitate treatment alone reduced insulin-induced Akt phosphorylation by 50% while a combination of palmitate and HG blunted Akt activation by 72%. The inhibition of Akt by palmitate was associated with the increase of PKC- activation leading to mTOR phosphorylation and its substrate S6. Moreover, the mTORC1 complex activation enhanced the serine 307 phosphorylation of IRS1 known to de-activate IRS1. Furthermore, palmitate also mediated the mTORC2 complex inhibition via the Thr1135 phosphorylation of Rictor. In vivo, the implication of mTORC1 complex in DN development was evaluated using 25 weeks old type 2 diabetes mice (db/db). Mice developed increased albuminuria, mesangial cell expansion and glomerular hypertrophy compared to non-diabetic mice, which correlated with the phosphorylation of mTOR, Rictor and S6. In conclusion, elevated FFA levels caused activation of PKC-/mTORC1 pathway and inhibition of mTORC2 leading to insulin resistance in podocytes and DN progression.

L'obésité et le diabète de type 2 sont associés à la sédentarité et à une alimentation riche en graisses. En effet, les acides gras saturés s'accumulent dans les tissus non adipeux, comme les muscles squelettiques pour générer des lipides appelés céramides (CER). Mon projet de thèse s'est articulé en deux parties dont l'objectif est d'empêcher les CER d'agir. Nous avons montré que, selon la structure de la membrane plasmique, les CER altèrent la voie de signalisation insulinique en ciblant la PKB, protéine clef de la voie insulinique, via la voie PKC? dans les myotubes L6 et la voie PP2A dans les myotubes C2C12. Nous avons aussi mis en évidence que les CER altèrent la sensibilité à l'insuline via la voie PKC? dans les cellules musculaires humaines. Une fois les CER produits au niveau du réticulum endoplasmique (RE), ils sont transportés au Golgi par un transporteur CERT pour y être métabolisés en sphingomyéline (SM) et des études ont montré que la transformation des CER en SM pouvait être une étape cruciale pour empêcher les CER d'agir. Dans plusieurs modèles d'insulino-résistance musculaire, l'expression de CERT est diminuée et nous avons démontré l'importance du transport des céramides du RE vers le Golgi en inhibant artificiellement l'activité ou l'expression de CERT. A l'opposé, la surexpression de CERT améliore la sensibilité à l'insuline dans les cellules musculaires dans des conditions lipotoxiques. Nos résultats montrent que CERT joue un rôle crucial dans les mécanismes conduisant au développement de l'insulinorésistance musculaire puisque sa présence est essentielle pour le maintien d'un trafic normal des CER entre le RE et le golgi. / Obesity and type 2 diabetes are associated with a sedentary lifestyle and a diet rich in fat. Indeed, saturated fatty acids accumulate in non-adipose tissue such as skeletal muscle to generate lipids called ceramides (CER). My thesis project was divided into two parts with the objective to prevent CER to act. We have shown that, depending on the structure of the plasma membrane, CER alter the insulin signaling pathway by targeting PKB, a key insulin signalling protein, via a PKCζ pathway in L6 myotubes and a PP2A pathway in C2C12 myotubes. We also demonstrated that CER affect insulin sensitivity via the PKCζ pathway in human muscle cells. Once CER generated in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), they are transported to the Golgi by a carrier called CERT to be metabolized into sphingomyelin (SM). Studies have shown that the transformation of CER into SM could be a crucial step to prevent CER to act. In several muscle insulin resistance models, expression of CERT is decreased and we demonstrated the importance of the transport of ceramide from the ER to the Golgi by inhibiting artificially the activity or the expression of CERT. In contrast, overexpression of CERT enhances insulin sensitivity in muscle cells in lipotoxiques conditions. Our results show that CERT plays a crucial role in mechanisms leading to the development of muscle insulin resistance since its presence is essential for maintaining normal traffic of CER between the ER and the Golgi.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(薬科学) / 甲第22399号 / 薬科博第121号 / 新制||薬科||13(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院薬学研究科薬科学専攻 / (主査)教授 松原 和夫, 教授 山下 富義, 教授 髙倉 喜信 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Pharmaceutical Sciences / Kyoto University / DFAM

Irrespective of plentiful efforts to enhance primary prevention and early detection, the number of melanoma cases in the United States has increased steadily over the past 30 years, thus greatly affecting public health and the economy. We have investigated the effects of five novel aPKC inhibitors; 2-acetyl-1,3-cyclopentanedione (ACPD), 3,4-Diaminonaphthalene-2,7-disulfonic acid (DNDA), [4-(5-amino-4-carbamoylimidazol-1-yl)-2,3-dihydroxycyclopentyl] methyl dihydrogen phosphate (ICA-1T) along with its nucleoside analog 5-amino-1-((1R,2S,3S,4R)-2,3-dihydroxy-4-methylcyclopentyl)-1H-imidazole-4-carboxamide (ICA-1S) and 8-hydroxy-1,3,6-naphthalenetrisulfonic acid (ζ-Stat) on cell proliferation, apoptosis, migration and invasion of two malignant melanoma cell lines compared to normal melanocyte cell lines. Molecular docking data suggested that both ACPD and DNDA specifically bind to protein kinase C-zeta (PKC-ζ) and PKC-iota (PKC-ι) while both ICA-1 compounds specifically bind to PKC-ι, and ζ-Stat showed a high affinity towards PKC-ζ. Kinase activity assays were carried out to confirm these observations. Results suggest that PKC-ι is involved in melanoma malignancy than PKC-ζ. Both isoforms promote the activation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB and protein kinase B (AKT) thereby supporting survival and progression. In addition, we demonstrated that PKC-ι induced the metastasis of melanoma cells by activating Vimentin, and PKC-ι inhibition downregulated epithilial-mesencymal transition (EMT), while inducing apoptosis. Of note, PKC-ἱ specific inhibitors downregulated the expression of both PKC-ι and phosphorylated PKC-ι, suggesting that PKC-ι plays a role in regulating its own expression in melanoma. We also report the underlaying mechanisms of the transcriptional regulation of PKC-ι (PRKCI gene) expression in melanoma. c-Jun, interferon-stimulated gene factor 3 (ISGF3), paired box gene 3 (PAX3), early growth response protein 1 (EGR1) and forkhead box protein O1 (FOXO1), which bind on or near the promoter sequence of the PRKCI gene, were analyzed for their role in PKC-ι regulation in SK-MEL-2 and MeWo cell lines. We silenced selected transcription factors using siRNA, and the results revealed that the silencing of c-Jun and FOXO1 significantly altered the expression of PRKCI. The levels of both phosphorylated and total PKC-ι increased upon FOXO1 silencing and decreased upon c-Jun silencing, suggesting that c-Jun acts as an upregulator, while FOXO1 acts as a downregulator of PRKCI expression. We also used a multiplex ELISA to analyze multiple pathways other than NF-κB that were affected by treatment with PKC-ι inhibitor. The silencing of NF-κB p65 and PKC-ι by siRNA suggested that the regulation of PKC-ι expression was strongly associated with FOXO1. In addition, we observed a significant decrease in the mRNA levels of both interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-8, with a significant increase in the levels of IL-17E and intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) upon the knockdown of expression of PKC-ι in both cell lines. This suggested that PKC-ι expression was affected by these cytokines in an autocrine manner. Overall, the findings of this study suggest that PKC-ι inhibition suppresses its own expression, diminishing oncogenic signaling, while upregulating anti-tumor signaling, thus rendering it an effective novel biomarker for use in the design of novel targeted therapeutics for melanoma.

The prevalence of obesity, which is considered as a disease, has been increasing uncontrollably over the last two decades. Obesity is a state of disregulated energy homeostasis characterized by hypothalamic resistance to adiposity signals (insulin and leptin). While many factors are involved in the development of obesity, excess dietary fat has been proposed as one of the main causal factors. This causes disrupted energy homeostasis by inducing both leptin and insulin resistance in the central nervous system. Although brain tissue was considered to be insulin independent for a long time, insulin is now recognized to have important functions in the brain in the regulation of feeding behavior, energy expenditure and peripheral metabolism to maintain energy homeostasis. Recently, our lab discovered that insulin has an anorectic effect when it is applied into the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA), a response that is similar to its effect when it is intracerebroventricularly (icv) administered into the hypothalamus. Our lab also demonstrated that rats fed a high fat diet lost the anorectic response to CeA insulin and became insulin resistant. These data suggested that insulin signaling in the amygdala had an important role in controlling food intake and energy expenditure in similar ways to the hypothalamus. It also suggests that a high fat diet inhibits amygdala insulin signaling in the CeA. Both in vitro cell culture and in vivo animal studies have been used to investigate the effects of dietary fats on insulin signaling in neuronal cells and in the amygdala. Using both hypothalamic GT1-7 cells and primary amygdala cells in culture, the saturated fatty acid palmitic acid was shown to inhibit insulin signaling (Akt phosphorylation). This response appears to be related to the activation of PKC-θ since the inhibitory effect of palmitic acid on Akt phosphorylation was greater in GT1-7 cells transfected with PKC-θ compared to wild type cells and was abolished in GT1-7 cells transfected with PKC-θ siRNA. Further investigations in vivo confirmed that insulin stimulated Akt and mTOR signaling in the CeA of rats and that the insulin stimulation of Akt phosphorylation, but not mTOR phosphorylation, was inhibited in rats fed a high fat diet for 3 days or by infusing palmitic acid into the CeA for 3 days. These experiments also identified that fatty acid and insulin signaling in the CeA differentially affected Akt and mTOR signaling in the hypothalamus and suggest that these neural connections might be important components of the neural pathways through which insulin in the amygdala affects food intake and peripheral metabolism. This research has provided novel insight into the effects of dietary fats on insulin signaling in an area of the brain, the CeA, that is now recognized to have effects on energy balance and peripheral metabolism.

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