Green garden peas (Pisum sativum L.) are a popular vegetable used in meal preparation worldwide. Green peas are commonly available in their frozen form due to their short growing season. Green peas are easily susceptible to changes in the field, immediately after harvest, during processing and storage, and thereforerequire careful handling to maintain good quality. The acceptability of frozen green peas is greatly dependent on the sensory quality. Descriptive sensory profiles and physico-chemical properties of frozen green peas can be investigated and used to assess and explain product quality. Six brands of frozen green peas representing product sold for retail and caterer's markets were purchased and subjected to descriptive sensory evaluation, physico-chemical analyses and quality grading. Four batches with different best before dates were purchased for each brand. Quality grading was done using statutory standards and a selected company protocol. Dry matter content, alcohol insoluble solids content, starch content, °Brix, residual peroxidase activity, size sorting, hardness using texture analysis and colour measurements were carried out for physico-chemical analyses. Generally, retail class peas were of superior sensory quality to caterer's peas although one caterer's brand had quality traits that were more comparable with the retail brands than the other caterer's brands. Quality grading revealed that frozen green peas can be downgraded due to poor colour, presence of extraneous vegetable matter, presence of sandy grits and soil stains, poor flavour and poor texture. Downgrading of peas can be due to one reason or due to a combination of two or more poor quality characteristics. Good quality peas were described as sweeter, smaller, greener, more moist and more tender than the poorer quality peas usingdescriptive sensory evaluation. Good peas also had high °Brix content, more intense green colour, low starch, alcohol insoluble solids, dry matter contents and texture hardness measured. Quality grading revealed that flavour problems were the major cause for low graded samples. Sensory evaluation and the methods used for instrumental analyses however, showed more easily the variations in texture attributes than flavour attributes of peas. Poor flavour was probably caused by ineffective blanching, low soluble solids content which enhanced the perception of bitterness and the presence of acetone notes. Poorly coloured peas were also either underblanched or had low moisture contents. Mealiness and hardness in peas were explained by high starch, alcohol insoluble solids and dry matter contents. Instrumental texture analysis showed indications that the harder peas also had tougher skins in addition to harder cotyledons. Lower peas also displayed characteristics typical of delayed harvesting and post-processing temperature abuse such as dehydration and pale green/white colouration. The sensory quality of frozen green peas can be predicted from the physico-chemical methods of analysis used in this study. Some of the frozen peas on sale are below the acceptable standards of quality. To achieve good frozen pea quality it is important to put emphasis on maturity at harvest and post processing storage conditions (store at -18 °C or lower and avoidfluctuatingtemperatures). The use of a strict quality grading scheme has been shownto result in good quality frozen peas. Copyright / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Food Science / unrestricted

In this study, surveys were conducted in pea and potato fields in North Dakota and Central Minnesota to investigate the incidence and abundance of plant-parasitic nematodes in these fields. Moreover, the effect of the pin nematode, Paratylenchus nanus, on plant growth and yield of six field pea cultivars was determined under greenhouse conditions. Similarly, the influence of lesion nematode, Pratylenchus penetrans, and wilt fungi, Fusarium oxysporum alone and together on growth and yield of potato cultivar ‘Red Norland’, was evaluated in microplots under field conditions. The results indicate Paratylenchus spp. and Pratylenchus spp. are the most frequent nematodes, respectively, in pea and potato fields. Pin nematodes reproduced on field pea cultivars and caused up to 37% reduction in plant height and 40% reduction in yield. Additionally, both P. penetrans and F. oxysporum alone, and together had significant negative effect on growth and yield of potato.

The production of canning peas has an important place in the economy of Utah, partioularly in the counties along the wetstern slopes of the Wasatch Mountains. The enterprise is one which adds intensity to Utah's small farms. This intensification is accomplished with little additional equipment or labor other than that owned or supplied by the farm operator and his family. The crop is seeded in early spring and harvested in early summer leaving the ground available for summer fallowing or planting to a short season crop such as grain pasture. Peas are a satisfactory nurse crop for small-seeded legumes such as alfalfa.

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<p dir="ltr">The objective of this thesis was to evaluate the nutrient digestibility in alternative animal and plant sources of feed ingredients for chickens and pigs. Therefore, 5 studies were carried out to determine the nutrient utilization in poultry meal (<b>PM</b>), faba beans (<b>FB</b>), and 3 cultivars field peas (<b>FP</b>).</p><p dir="ltr">In the first study, 2 experiments investigated the energy and phosphorus utilization of PM for broiler chickens. Poultry meal was used to substitute corn and soybean meal in the reference diet at 0, 80, or 160 g/kg in Experiment 1. Whereas PM was included in the diet at 0, 50, or 100 g/kg in Experiment 2. A total of 192 birds were allotted to 3 experimental diets in both experiments. The estimated ileal digestible energy (<b>IDE</b>), metabolizable energy (<b>ME</b>), and nitrogen-corrected metabolizable energy (<b>MEn</b>) for PM were 4,002, 3,756, and 3,430 kcal/kg DM, respectively. In Experiment 2, the true ileal digestibility (<b>TID</b>) and true total tract utilization (<b>TTTU</b>) of P in PM were 77.5 and 79.0%, respectively.</p><p dir="ltr">The second study consisted of 3 experiments. In the first experiment, 240 birds were assigned to 5 diets to determine the energy values of FB and DS admiral FP (<b>FPD</b>). In Experiment 1, the test ingredients were incorporated into a corn-soybean meal-based diet at 0, 150 or 300 g/kg. The IDE, ME, and MEn for FB were 2,541, 2,628, and 2,394 kcal/kg, respectively. The respective values for FPD were 2,254, 2,540, and 2,331 kcal/kg DM. In each of Experiments 2 and 3, 162 birds were assigned to 3 diets. Faba beans was included at 21, 42, or 63% and FPD at 16, 32, or 48% in Experiments 2 and 3, respectively. The TID and TTTU of P in FB were 66.5 and 66.7%, respectively. The corresponding values for FPD were 73.4 and 73.8%.</p><p dir="ltr">The third study consisted of 3 experiments. In Experiment 1, the energy values for Hampton FP (<b>FPH</b>) and 4010 FP (<b>FP4</b>) fed to broiler chickens were estimated. Two hundred and forty birds were assigned to 5 diets. The test ingredients were included at 0, 150 or 300 g/kg into a corn-soybean meal-based reference diet. With regression analysis, the determined IDE, ME, and MEn were 3,274, 3,033, and 2,850 kcal/kg DM in FPH, respectively, in FP4 the energy values were 3,019, 3,155, and 2,991 kcal/kg DM, respectively. The P utilization in FPH and FP4 were determined in Experiments 2 and 3, respectively. The corresponding TID and TTTU of P in FPH were 74.6% and 68.3%, and 74.3 and 61.7% in FP4.</p><p dir="ltr">Two experiments were conducted in the fourth study to estimate the digestible energy (<b>DE</b>) and ME in FB and FP fed to pigs. Twenty-four barrows were assigned to 3 dietary treatments in each of the experiments. Faba beans or FPD in Experiment 1 and FPH or FP4 in Experiment 2 were included in the diet at 0 or 300 g/kg. The determined DE and ME values for FB using the total collection method were 3,772 and 3,606 kcal/kg DM and in FPD were 3,683 and 3,589 kcal/kg DM, respectively. In Exp. 2, the respective DE and ME for FPH were 4,164 and 4,014 kcal/kg DM and for FP4 were 3,574 and 3,467 kcal/kg DM.</p><p dir="ltr">In the last study, standardized ileal digestibility (<b>SID</b>) of amino acids (<b>AA</b>) in faba beans and three cultivars of FP between broiler chickens and pigs were compared. The test ingredients were the only source of protein providing 160 g/kg crude protein and a nitrogen-free diet was prepared to estimate the basal endogenous losses of AA. The same set of five diets was used across both species. The SID of Lys in FB, FPD, and FPH exceeded 90% but in FP4 it was 85.1% for broiler chickens. Whereas for pigs the SID of Lys in FB, FPD, and FPH exceeded 80% but for FP4 it was 89.8%. The SID of Met in the test ingredients ranged from 72.1 to 89.8% and 68.1 to 81.8% for broiler chickens and pigs, respectively. In general, the SID of AA in the test ingredients were greater compared with chickens. The energy, P, and AA digestibility of the test ingredients determined in the five studies could be used in diet formulation for chickens and pigs.</p>

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The purpose of this study was to explore the influence of external product attributes on consumers’ perceived acceptance of pea protein as a protein substitute in food products. The interest in pea protein as a possible protein source was investigated and the various advantages of consuming pea protein were highlighted. In previous studies, pea protein was identified as a possible substitute for red meat (Davies & Lightowler, 1998), but also as protein containing the amino acid profile which corresponds with the profile recommended for adults by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) (Swendseid, 1981). Additionally the nutritional and health benefits, the environmental benefits of growing pea protein as well as the non-allergen declaration accompanying pea protein were discussed. The various factors that will influence the consumer’s decision making process when introduced to a new and unfamiliar protein source such as pea protein were investigated in terms of the external product attributes as well as the factors indicated in the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). The external product attributes were identified as the influence of price, marketing of the product, packaging attributes of new food products, branding importance of a product and new product education and knowledge perceived necessary for acceptability of a new food product. The additional factors which were investigated, as indicated by the TRA, included the influence of the subjective norms or significant others, as well as the consumers’ personal attitude. attitude. Due to the limited insight and understanding of the influences that external product attributes have on a consumer’s perceived acceptance of pea protein as a protein substitute in food products, a qualitative exploratory research design was initiated. An exploratory research design was incorporated because this afforded the researcher the opportunity to gather thorough and comprehensive data or information and it also increased the richness and depth of explorations that could be researched (Key, 2002). The fact that an exploratory research design was incorporated, a non-probability sampling strategy was implemented. Additionally a convenient sampling strategy was also implemented because this type of sampling strategy represents sites or individuals from which data can easily be collected and where access is convenient (Cresswell, 2007). The unit of analysis for this research was female shoppers, being the main grocery and food shoppers in the household, who were living in suburban areas. The participants of the research, therefore, resided mainly in the Johannesburg and Pretoria suburban areas, within the Gauteng province and were chosen because these are two of the major suburban cities in South Africa. The data were collected through means of a multi-method approach whereby different data collection instruments were applied. In this regard focus group interviews, sentence completion exercise and a vignette were used which addressed the objectives set out in the study. From the findings of the study on the influence of external product attributes on consumers’ perceived acceptance of new products in general and new products containing pea protein, it was found that there were not any noticeable differences between a new food product and a new food product containing pea protein. The consumer did not indicate a greater willingness to accept general new products in comparison to a pea protein product. On the contrary, the fact that a new product contained pea protein did not make any difference. For consumers external product attributes in general played a major role in their purchasing decision making process. The most important requirement that the consumers had was that additional information regarding the pea protein should be provided. It was indicated by the participants that they would be interested in the pea protein product and consider purchasing it and incorporating it into their daily diet, providing they knew more about the product and had sufficient background information about the new product. Furthermore, the importance of marketing of a new product was highlighted and the fact that the packaging of the new product should be attractive and eye-catching. Price competiveness was mentioned, however, should a new and unfamiliar product be introduced by a well-known brand, this would lower the initial resistance to the new product. One of the main limitations of this study is the relatively small sample size from a particular area in South Africa and, therefore, resulting in a very selective sample. The sample, therefore, remains one of convenience which limits the ability to generalize or transfer findings to a bigger group of consumers. Furthermore the study location was within a limited area, namely Gauteng. For this reason no assumptions were made nor were findings considered to be transferable to other population groups or consumer groups. Another limitation is that the topic of this study is very new and unfamiliar; there are, therefore, no previous studies with which to compare the findings. This study was exploratory in nature and the instruments were chosen specifically to explore a new and unfamiliar topic. The transferability of this study might be limited, but care was taken to describe the research context in as much detail as possible. In doing so, an attempt was made to enhance the transferability, should another researcher wish to duplicate the study. From the findings of this study certain recommendation can be made as most participants were of the opinion that they would be interested in the pea protein product and consider purchasing it and incorporating it into their daily diet provided they knew more about the product and sufficient background information had been supplied. Furthermore, it was noted from the findings that these external attributes would influence the new product acceptability and, therefore, giving the research and developers as well as the marketing team of a manufacturing company the information necessary to understand the requirements from the consumers regarding the product containing pea protein better and how this product should be marketed as a healthy alternative to other vegetable protein sources. Further recommendations are that should a food manufacturing company wish to develop a pea protein product, they would need to promote the product beforehand and create an awareness of the advantages and benefits of pea proteins. This can be done by editorials in magazines as well as promotions in printed media. Additionally, the competition between products and brands is fierce and, therefore, manufacturing companies need to differentiate their products to keep consumers interested in their product or brand. Pea protein is a new and innovative product and can, therefore, add that differentiation and benefit to food products. Future research that can be considered is that of a sensory study, to determine the actual viability of the pea protein products based on sensory evaluation. One of the main criteria indicated for the acceptability of a food product containing pea protein has been the taste. The present research was theoretical and exploratory in nature and, therefore, there were no actual products which the participants could taste. Additionally, the inclusion criteria for this study was identified as female shoppers who are in charge of household grocery and food purchases and were, therefore, specifically recruited to participate in the research. However, based on a study done by Jensen (2011), it is recommended that further studies specifically include males because men are doing more of the household grocery shopping and they are not as brand loyal as females and would, therefore, be more willing to try and experiment with new food products. A study based on the gender differences of the acceptability of new products, could highlight different extrinsic attributes that would influence the purchasing decision. / Business Management / M. Consumer Sc.

Copies of the author's previously published articles inserted. Bibliography: leaves 142-159. Provides information on the significance of pea straw as a ruminant feed and the potential of two biological techniques for improving its feeding value.

Whole yellow pea flour (WPF) and fractionated yellow pea flour (FPF) are novel functional food ingredients that vary in nutritional composition. Consequently, the health benefits of WPF and FPF remain undefined. The purpose of this research was to identify the effects of WPF and FPF on risk factors and morbidities associated with cardiovascular disease, diabetes and obesity as well as the gastrointestinal microbiome. Using USDA recommended dosages of WPF and FPF, clinical endpoints and the colonic microbiome were investigated using a human clinical trial engaging a cross-over design and a diet and energy controlled paradigm. Humans were also utilized to investigate post-prandial glycemic responses and sensory characteristics of novel functional foods formulated with WPF. Finally, Golden Syrian hamsters were used to assess the impact of high doses of WPF and FPF on clinical endpoints and caecal microbial abundance. Results reveal that USDA recommended dosages of WPF and FPF in humans decreased (p<0.05) fasting insulin and estimates of insulin resistance compared to white wheat flour (WF). Android-to-gynoid fat ratios in women were lower (p=0.027) in the WPF group compared to the WF group. FPF decreased (p<0.05) post-prandial energy expenditure alongside a tendency (p<0.075) to reduce carbohydrate oxidation. Novel biscotti and banana bread formulated with WPF induced low post-prandial glycemic responses which were similar to boiled whole yellow peas and significantly lower (p<0.05) than white bread. Sensory analysis of novel WPF biscotti and banana bread demonstrated that WPF-based food products are palatable and acceptable for human consumption. Hamsters consuming diets containing 10% WPF and FPF induced similar reductions (p<0.05) in fasting insulin levels compared to controls. However, animals consuming WPF increased (p<0.05) oxygen consumption while FPF decreased (p<0.05) fasting glucose levels. In addition, terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis revealed that WPF and FPF induced distinct shifts in caecal microbial populations within the phyla Firmicutes. Finally, pyrosequencing analysis of human fecal microbiota demonstrated that FPF and WPF induced shifts in bacterial genera, primarily within Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes. In conclusion, whole and fractionated yellow pea flours are functional food ingredients and can be utilized to manage risk factors for lifestyle-related diseases in humans.