X-ray phase-contrast imaging has seen rapid development in recent decades due to its superior performance in imaging low-absorption objects, compared to traditional attenuation x-ray imaging. Having higher demand on coherence, x-ray phase-contrast imaging is performed mostly at synchrotrons. With the development of different imaging techniques, and the development of laboratory sources and x-ray optics, x-ray phase-contrast imaging can now be implemented on laboratory systems, which is promising and practical for broader range of applications. The subject of this thesis is the implementation, development and comparison of different laboratory phase-contrast methods using a liquid-metal-jet source. The three x-ray phase-contrast imaging methods included in this thesis are the propagation-, grating-, and speckle-based techniques. The grating-based method has been implemented on a laboratory system with a liquid-metal-jet source, which yields several times higher brightness than a standard solid-anode microfocus source. This allows shorter exposure time or a higher signal-to-noise ratio. The performance of the grating-based method has been experimentally and numerically compared with the propagation-based method, and the dose required to observe an object as a function of the object’s diameter has been investigated with simulations. The result indicates a lower dose requirement for the propagation-based method in this system but a potential advantage for the grating-based method to detect relatively large samples using a monochromatic beam. The speckle-based method, both the speckle-tracking and speckle-scanning techniques, has been implemented on a laboratory system for the first time, showing its adaptability to radiation of low temporal coherence. Tomography has been performed and shows the potential applications of this method on quantitative analysis on both absorption and phase information of materials. As a basis for further optimization and comparisons to other methods, the noise properties of the differential phase contrast of the speckle-based method have been studied and an analytical expression for the noise variance introduced, showing a similarity to the grating-based method. / Faskontrastavbildning med röntgenstrålning är en teknik som har utvecklats kraftigt de senaste årtiondena, eftersom den fungerar bättre än traditionella, absorptionsbaserade röntgenundersökningar för objekt med låg absorption. Den har dock höga krav på koherens, vilket gjort att den huvudsakligen används vid stora synkrotron-anläggningar. Tack vare utveckligen av nya avbildningstekniker, laboratoriekällor och röntgenoptik kan numera faskontrast användas även med laboratoriesystem, vilket är lovande då tekniken kan användas vid ett större antal olika tillämpningsområden Denna avhandling syftar till att tillämpa, utveckla och jämföra olika faskontrastmetoder i laboratoriemiljö, med en metallstråleröntgenkälla. De tre faskontrastmetoderna som behandlas i denna avhandling är propogation, gitter och speckelbaserad faskontrast. Den gitterbaserade metoden har implementerats i ett laboratoriesystem med en metallstrålekälla som ger flera gånger högre radians än en vanlig, fast mikrofokuskälla. Den högre radians en möjliggör kortare exponeringstider eller högre signal-brusförhållande. Den gitterbaserade tekniken har jämförts experimentellt och numeriskt med den propageringsbaserade metoden. Den strålningsdos som krävs för observera ett objekt, som funktion av dess diameter, har jämförts för de båda teknikerna, den här gången via simuleringar. Resultaten visar på en lägre strålningsdos för den propagationsbaserade tekniken i detta fall, men även att det finns en potentiell fördel för den gitterbaserade tekniken för något större objekt med monokromatisk röntgenstrålning. Speckelbaserade tekniker, nämare bestämt den som bygger på att spåra speckel och den som bygger på att scanna diffusorn, har för första gången implementerats i laboratoriemiljö. Därmed har visats att de fungerar även för strålning med låg tidskoherens. Tekniken har även använts för tomografi och visar möjliga tillämpningar inom kvantitativ analys av material. För att förenkla framtida optimeringar och jämförelser av tekniken med andra metoder, har brusegenskaperna för den speckelbaserade metoden studerats och visat sig likna den gitterbaserade metoden. / <p>QC 20160921</p>

Over the last fifteen years, there has been a rapid growth in the use of high resolution X-ray computed tomography (HRXCT) imaging in material science applications. We use it at nanoscale resolutions up to 50 nm (nano-CT) for key research problems in large scale operation of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) and lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries in automotive applications. PEMFC are clean energy sources that electrochemically react with hydrogen gas to produce water and electricity. To reduce their costs, capturing their electrode nanostructure has become significant in modeling and optimizing their performance. For Li-ion batteries, a key challenge in increasing their scope for the automotive industry is Li metal dendrite growth. Li dendrites are structures of lithium with 100 nm features of interest that can grow chaotically within a battery and eventually lead to a short-circuit. HRXCT imaging is an effective diagnostics tool for such applications as it is a non-destructive method of capturing the 3D internal X-ray absorption coefficient of materials from a large series of 2D X-ray projections. Despite a recent push to use HRXCT for quantitative information on material samples, there is a relative dearth of computational tools in nano-CT image processing and analysis. Hence, we focus on developing computational methods for nano-CT image analysis of fuel cell and battery materials as required by the limitations in material samples and the imaging environment. The first problem we address is the segmentation of nano-CT Zernike phase contrast images. Nano-CT instruments are equipped with Zernike phase contrast optics to distinguish materials with a low difference in X-ray absorption coefficient by phase shifting the X-ray wave that is not diffracted by the sample. However, it creates image artifacts that hinder the use of traditional image segmentation techniques. To restore such images, we setup an inverse problem by modeling the X-ray phase contrast optics. We solve for the artifact-free images through an optimization function that uses novel edge detection and fast image interpolation methods. We use this optics-based segmentation method in two main research problems - 1) the characterization of a failure mechanism in the internal structure of Li-ion battery electrodes and 2) the measurement of Li metal dendrite morphology for different current and temperature parameters of Li-ion battery cell operation. The second problem we address is the development of a space+time (4D) reconstruction method for in-operando imaging of samples undergoing temporal change, particularly for X-ray sources with low throughput and nanoscale spatial resolutions. The challenge in using such systems is achieving a sufficient temporal resolution despite exposure times of a 2D projection on the order of 1 minute. We develop a 4D dynamic X-ray computed tomography (CT) reconstruction method, capable of reconstructing a temporal 3D image every 2 to 8 projections. Its novel properties are its projection angle sequence and the probabilistic detection of experimental change. We show its accuracy on phantom and experimental datasets to show its promise in temporally resolving Li metal dendrite growth and in elucidating mitigation strategies. Keywords: X-ray computed tomography, 4D X-ray computed tomography, phase contrast optics, fuel cells, Li-ion batteries, signal processing and optimization.

The objective of this research project was to evaluate the mechanical, morphological, and permeability properties of electrospun blends of polydioxanone and poly(lactic acid) for application as vascular grafts. Mechanical analysis was performed by uniaxial tensile testing to examine the peak load, peak stress, elastic modulus, and strain at break of the fibrous materials. The morphological characteristics of the polymer blends were analyzed using phase contrast microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and image analysis software. Scanning electron microscopy and image analysis software were used to assess fiber diameter and pore size of electrospun scaffolds. Scaffold permeability measurements were also used to calculate fiber diameter and pore size, and the values were compared to those obtained using image analysis. The material property results acquired from the research suggest that the electrospun polymer blends have potential for use in vascular graft applications.

Différentes techniques d'imagerie par contraste de phase des rayons X ont été récemment développées. Contrairement aux méthodes conventionnelles, qui mesurent les propriétés d'absorption des tissus, ces techniques donnent aussi le contraste du déphasage introduit par l'échantillon. Puisque le changement dans la phase peut être important même quand les différences en atténuation sont faibles ou absentes, le contraste d'image obtenable peut être considérablement augmenté, notamment pour les tissus mous biologiques. Ces méthodes sont donc très prometteuses pour une application dans le domaine médical. Cette Thèse a le but de contribuer à une compréhension plus profonde de ces techniques, en particulier la propagation-based imaging (PBI), la analyzer-based imaging (ABI) et la grating interferometry (GIFM), et d'étudier leur potentiel et la meilleure implémentation pratique pour les applications médicales. Une partie importante de cette Thèse est dédiée à l'utilisation d'algorithmes mathématiques pour l'extraction, à partir des images acquises, d'informations quantitatives (absorption, réfraction et diffusion) concernant l'échantillon. En particulier, cinq parmi les algorithmes les plus connus pour la technique ABI sont analysés théoriquement et comparés expérimentalement, dans les modalités planaire et tomographique, en utilisant des fantômes et des échantillons de tissu mammaire et d'os-cartilage. Une méthode semi-quantitative pour l'acquisition et la reconstruction d'images tomographiques dans les techniques ABI et GIFM est aussi proposée. Les conditions de validité sont analysées en détail et la méthode, permettant une simplification considérable de l'implémentation pratique, est vérifiée expérimentalement sur des fantômes et des échantillons humains. Enfin, une comparaison théorique et expérimentale des techniques PBI, ABI et GIFM est présentée. Les avantages et les désavantages de chacune des techniques sont mis en évidence. Les résultats obtenus par cette analyse peuvent être très utiles pour déterminer quelle technique est la plus adaptée à une application donnée. / Several X-ray phase-contrast techniques have recently been developed. Unlike conventional X-ray methods, which measure the absorption properties of the tissues, these techniques derive contrast also from the modulation of the phase produced by the sample. Since the phase shift can be significant even for small details characterized by weak or absent absorption, the achievable image contrast can be greatly increased, notably for the soft biological tissues. These methods are therefore very promising for applications in the medical domain. The aim of this Thesis is to contribute to a deeper understanding of these techniques, in particular propagation-based imaging (PBI), analyzer-based imaging (ABI) and grating interferometry (GIFM), and to study their potential and the best practical implementation for medical imaging applications. An important part of this Thesis is dedicated to the use of mathematical algorithms for the extraction, from the acquired images, of quantitative sample information (the absorption, refraction and scattering sample properties). In particular, five among the most known algorithms based on the geometrical optics approximation have been theoretically analysed and experimentally compared, in planar and tomographic modalities, by using geometrical phantoms and human bone-cartilage and breast samples. A semi-quantitative method for the acquisition and reconstruction of tomographic images in the ABI and GIFM techniques has also been proposed. The validity conditions are analyzed in detail and the method, enabling a considerable simplification of the imaging procedure, is experimentally verified on phantoms and human samples. Finally, a theoretical and experimental comparison of the PBI, ABI and GIFM techniques is presented. The advantages and drawbacks of each of these techniques are discussed. The results obtained from this analysis can be very useful for determining the most adapted technique for a given application.

Tendo em vista experimentos envolvendo o estudo da dinâmica de gases quânticos aprisionados, visando a simulação quântica de sistemas complexos, este trabalho discute a implementação e o estudo da técnica de imagem dispersiva, por contraste de fase, e a compara com o método de imagem por absorção óptica. A implementação da nova técnica foi feita em um regime não convencional de dessintonia, explorando a região proxima da ressonância atômica, onde se deve levar em conta o efeito da absorção, além da mudança de fase, do campo elétrico do laser de prova, após interagir com os átomos. Portanto, este trabalho apresenta não só a implementação de uma nova técnica experimental, mas também um modelo simples para interpretar os dados obtidos nesse novo regime. / Envisioning experiments involving the dynamics of trapped quantum gases, towards the quantum simulation of complex systems, this work presents the implementation and study of a dispersive imaging technique, by phase contrast, and compares it to absorption imaging. The implementation of this new technique in our laboratory was done in a non conventional range of detunings, exploring the region near atomic resonance, where absortion effecs need to be taken into account, in addition to the phase shift, introduced in the electric field of the probing laser, after interacting with the atoms. Therefore, this work presents not only the implementation of a new experimental technique, but also a simple model to interpret the dada obtained in this new regime.

No description available.

Um sistema multi-feixe de pinças ópticas baseado na técnica de contraste de fase da ordem zero pode apresentar vantagens significativas sobre sistemas mecanicamente complexos e sensíveis ao alinhamento, e sobre tecnologias que, apesar de serem similares, requerem a customização de componentes ópticos. Porém, ao nosso conhecimento, este sistema até agora não tem sido implementado experimentalmente. Neste trabalho tem-se desenvolvido, como prova de princípio, o primeiro sistema baseado na técnica de contraste de fase da ordem zero gerador de múltiplas pinças ópticas. Esta técnica da óptica de Fourier utiliza conceitos do contraste de fase de Zernike e técnicas de codificação de dois pixels para gerar padrões de intensidade no plano da imagem que são diretamente relacionados a distribuições de fase no plano de entrada do sistema, o qual é formado por um modulador espacial de luz (SLM). Esta dissertação de mestrado descreve detalhadamente os passos tomados com o propósito de utilizar os campos estruturados de luz gerados pelo sistema de contraste de fase da ordem zero para aprisionar esferas de 2 &#181;m de diâmetro de sílica fundida. Neste trabalho apresentamos os fundamentos teóricos do aprisionamento óptico e da técnica de contraste de fase da ordem zero, seguidos pela implementação de experimentos independentes em cada modalidade, e finalmente apresentamos a integração de ambos os sistemas dentro um sistema único de pinças ópticas multi-feixe. Apesar da baixa eficiência óptica do sistema, foi possível implementar um sistema de pinças ópticas duplas. Finalizamos o nosso trabalho na discussão detalhada das limitações do nosso arranjo óptico e comentamos sobre potenciais melhorias para aumentar a rigidez das pinças ópticas e a qualidade geral do sistema. / A multi-beam optical trapping system based on the zero order phase contrast technique may offer significant advantages over mechanically-complex, alignment-sensitive optical trapping systems, and over technologies that, though similar, require the customization of optics components. However, to our knowledge, such a system has not been yet implemented experimentally. We have developed, as a proof of principle, what we think is the first system based on the zero order phase contrast technique to successfully generate multiple optical traps. This Fourier optics technique makes use of existing concepts of Zernike phase contrast and two-pixel encoding techniques to generate intensity patterns in the image plane that are directly related to phase distributions in the input plane, which is comprised by a spatial light modulator (SLM). This master\'s dissertation describes in detail the steps taken towards using the structured light fields generated by a zero order phase contrast system to trap 2 &#181;m diameter fused silica beads. We present the theoretical foundations of optical trapping and the zero order phase contrast technique, followed by the implementation of independent laboratory experiments in each modality, and finally integrate both systems into a single optical setup for multi-beam trapping. In spite of the low optical efficiency of the system, we were able to implement dual optical traps. We finalize by discussing in detail the limitations of our experimental setup in and comment on potential improvements to increase the stiffness of the optical traps and the overall quality of the system.

Várias técnicas de cifragem óptica de imagens surgem a todo o momento devido à necessidade que se tem de transmitir informações de uma maneira segura e confiável. Nessas técnicas a informação é criptografada de tal modo que para conseguir recuperar a informação criptografada é necessário ter um conhecimento prévio da mesma chave que a criptografou, sendo esta chave única. Isto faz com que as técnicas sejam robustas. Estes processos de cifragem de imagem trabalham com a distribuição de fase obtida diretamente da imagem que se deseja criptografar e conseqüentemente a imagem decodificada também está em modulação de fase. Porém imagens em distribuição de fase não são visíveis ao olho humano. Para transformá-Ias em modulação de amplitude, a qual é visível ao olho humano, é utilizado o método de contraste de fase de Zernike. Propôs-se então um método para cifrar imagem binária apenas em modulação de amplitude. Após o processo de decodificação, a imagem obtida é reconhecida graças à capacidade do olho humano em discernir regiões contínuas de regiões aleatórias. Este método é de fácil implementação, podendo ser obtido utilizando apenas materiais de baixo custo como papéis, filmes plásticos, etc. Vários ataques foram realizados contra o processo de cifragem óptica de imagens utilizando máscara binária aleatória para analisar a robustez de tal processo. Este processo de cifragem não é robusto ao ataque do texto conhecido e ao ataque das cifras conhecidas. / Several optical encryption techniques have been developed due to the need to transmit information in a secure and reliable way. In these techniques the information is encrypted in a way that to recover the encrypted information is necessary to have a previous knowledge of the same mask that encrypted it, being this mask unique. Because of this, the techniques are robust. These image encryption methods work with the phase distribution obtained directly from the image that is intended to encrypt and consequently the decrypted image will also be in the phase modulation. But, images in a phase distribution are not visible for the human eyes. To transform them in an amplitude modulation, that is visible for the human eyes, it is used the Zernike phase contrast method. Then, it is proposed a method for encryption and decryption of information processed in a binary form in an amplitude modulation. After the decryption process, the image obtained is recognized because the human eyes are able to differentiate continuous, periodical regions to random pattern. This method has an easy implementation and it can be obtained using regular and inexpensive materials, like paper, plastic films, etc. Many attacks were realized against the proposed method to analyse if this method is robust. This method can not resist the known-plaintext attack and the known-ciphertext attack.

Depuis la découverte des rayons X par Röntgen, l'imagerie radiographique utilise le contraste d'absorption. Cette technique est efficace uniquement si les objets à étudier sont suffisamment absorbants. C'est pour cela qu'on peut détecter une lésion osseuse avec une radiographie, mais pas une lésion ligamentaire.Toutefois, l'imagerie par contraste de phase peut permettre de surmonter cette limite. Depuis les années 2000, s'appuyant sur des travaux similaires existant en optique visible, les scientifiques des rayons X essayent de mettre au point des dispositifs sensibles au contraste de phase et compatibles avec des applications industrielles comme l'imagerie médicale ou le contrôle non-destructif. Néanmoins, les architectures classiques des interféromètres sont très difficiles à mettre en place dans les rayons X durs, et sont trop contraignantes pour être transférables vers l'industrie. C'est pourquoi des dispositifs utilisant des réseaux de diffraction ont été les plus développés. Ils ont permis d'obtenir les premières images de radiographie par contraste de phase sur des humains vivants.Mais les architectures proposées aujourd'hui utilisent plusieurs réseaux et son contraignantes pour les industriels. C'est pourquoi j'ai développé au cours de ma thèse un système n'utilisant qu'un unique réseau de phase. J'ai montré qu'un tel dispositif peut générer des interférogrammes achromatiques et invariants par propagation. Ce dispositif a permis d'effectuer des mesures de contraste de phase quantitatives sur un fossile biologique, ainsi que des mesures métrologiques sur des miroirs plans sensibles aux rayons X. / Since Röntgen discovered X-rays, X-ray imaging systems are based on absorption contrast. This technique is inefficient for weakly absorbing objects. As a result, X-ray standard radiography can detect bones lesions, but cannot detect ligament lesions.However, phase contrast imaging can overcome this limitation. Since the years 2000, relying on former works of opticians, X-ray scientists are developing phase sensitive devices compatible with industrial applications such as medical imaging or non destructive control.Standard architectures for interferometry are challenging to implement in the X-ray domain.This is the reason why grating based interferometers became the most promising devices to envision industrial applications. They provided the first x-ray phase contrast images of living human samples.Nevertheless, actual grating based architectures require the use of at least two gratings, and are challenging to adapt on an industrial product. So, the aim of my thesis was to develop a single phase grating interferometer. I demonstrated that such a device can provide achromatic and propagation invariant interference patterns. I used this interferometer to perform quantitative phase contrast imaging of a biological fossil sample and x-ray flat mirror metrology.

Single Ventricle congenital heart defects with cyanotic mixing between systemic and pulmonary circulations afflict 2 per 1000 live births. The total cavo-pulmonary connection (TCPC), where the superior and inferior vena cavae are sutured to the left and right pulmonary arteries, is the current procedure of choice. It is believed that reducing the fluid mechanical power losses in the TCPC will relieve strain on the single functional ventricle. It is hypothesized that a proposed idealized TCPC design, decreases power losses to a level below that of any other TCPC designs, while providing other advantages and increased flexibility. Physical models with slightly different geometries of the proposed design were created, and in vitro experiments carried out with particle image velocimetry (PIV), phase contrast magnetic resonance imaging (PC-MRI), and control volume flow analysis at physiological flow rates. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) was used for numerical studies of the same geometries as in the physical models. Power losses were calculated using the control volume method and the viscous power dissipation function. The latter method incorporated registration of high-resolution PC-MRI velocity vectors to tetrahedral meshes followed by inverse interpolation of the vectors onto the meshes. Detailed flow structures were analyzed. Results show that the new design is more energy efficient than any other idealized models. Furthermore, a tool was developed to extract flow and vessel information from PC-MRI datasets obtained from patients with Fontan connections. The tool utilized a display algorithm, which was developed for optimal noise detection in PC-MRI images. This enabled accurate segmentation. Comparing PC-MRI images before and after this accurate segmentation showed that the standard deviations of the pixels at the perimeter of the segmented vessel were statistically significantly smaller after the segmentation in 94.1% of the datasets investigated. The developed tool was able to extract flow, flow in the quadrants of vessels, area of the segmented vessel, velocities and pulsatility indices. The velocity vectors were exported for use as CFD boundary conditions in models reconstructed from patient anatomies. A database was created with patient PC-MRI data from approximately 140 patients, which is probably the largest database in the world.