As tecnologias baseadas em sensores estão cada vez mais disponíveis e podem ser usadas para coletar informações detalhadas sobre o comportamento animal. Com esta informação é possível avaliar o ritmo circadiano de variáveis comportamentais e monitorar sua resposta. A identificação de variações na resposta deste ritmo tem o potencial de detectar problemas de saúde e questões de bem-estar animal. O objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar os ritmos circadianos comportamentais como uma nova abordagem para monitorar ovelhas em sistemas extensivos e estudar a emissão de metano, eficiência alimentar e crescimento de novilhos de corte. Este trabalho foi composto por dois experimentos (ovinos e bovinos). Foram utilizados cochos automatizados e sensores de atividade baseados em acelerômetro para coletar informações detalhadas do comportamento ingestivo (bovinos) e do comportamento de atividade (ovinos e bovinos), juntamente com as características de desempenho animal. Estes dados foram utilizados para calcular a percentagem de comportamento cíclico harmônico/sincronizado a cada período de 24 h. Essa porcentagem é chamada de grau de acoplamento funcional (DFC) e é calculada com uso de um período móvel de sete dias. No experimento com ovinos, um total de 29 ovelhas Scottish Blackface foram monitoradas por quatro semanas em cada estação do ano, em sistema extensivo nas terras altas da Escócia. Dados meteorológicos foram coletados diariamente. Modelos estatísticos de regressão com efeito aleatório foram utilizados para avaliar a variação da resposta entre indivíduos. Houve uma forte dinâmica criada pelas estações do ano e pelo ciclo produtivo/fisiológico das ovelhas. Durante a primavera e o verão, o desvio padrão do DFC foi um melhor estimador do ganho de peso quando comparado ao índice de moção. A combinação da análise do DFC e o agrupamento de indivíduos com base em sua resposta às variáveis ambientais oferece potencial para obter informações relevantes para o manejo do rebanho. O experimento de bovinos foi conduzido com duas dietas contrastantes (volumoso: concentrado 8:92 e 50:50) e duas raças (40 mestiços Charolês e 40 Luing). Os padrões diurnos de ingestão e atividade foram altamente sincronizados. O ritmo circadiano da atividade foi importante para explicar as diferentes emissões de metano entre indivíduos, independente da raça ou dieta, e também teve ligação com a eficiência alimentar e o crescimento dos novilhos. Este trabalho mostra a importância dos ritmos circadianos comportamentais e como essas abordagens podem melhorar a qualidade e o significado dos dados provenientes de sensores automatizados. / Sensor-based technologies are becoming increasingly available and can be used to gather detailed information about animal behaviour. With this information it is possible to assess animal behavioural circadian rhythm and monitor its response. Identifying breakdowns of this rhythm has the potential to detect health problems and animal welfare issues. The aim of this work was to study the behavioural circadian rhythms as a novel approach to monitor sheep in extensive systems and to study the differences between beef steers production traits, in methane emission, feed efficiency and growth. This work consisted of two experiments, one dealing with sheep in an extensive system and the other with housed beef steers. Automated feed intake equipment and accelerometer-based activity sensors were used to collect detailed information on feed intake (for cattle) and activity behaviour (for sheep and cattle), alongside animal performance characteristics. These data were used to calculate the percentage of cyclic behaviour that is harmonic/synchronized to each 24 h period as Degree of Functional Coupling (DFC) shown within rolling seven day periods. In the sheep experiment, in total twenty-nine Scottish Blackface ewes were monitored for four consecutive weeks in each season across a full year, in an extensive system on Scottish upland pastures. Weather data were collected daily. Random regression statistical models were used to assess between-individual variation in response to the weather. There was a strong dynamic created by the seasons and by the production and physiological cycle in sheep in these high latitude systems. Over the spring and summer period, the variation in the response of DFC was a better estimator of BWG (Body Weight Gain) than the use of a simple motion index. The combination of circadian rhythm analysis and the clustering of individuals into groups based around their regression response to environmental variables provides considerable potential to glean information relevant for group and individual animal management. The cattle experiment was conducted with two contrasting diets (concentrate-based and mixed diet) and two breeds (40 crossbred Charolais and 40 purebred Luing). The diurnal patterns of feeding and activity behaviours were strong and highly synchronised. Activity rhythmicity was well suited to show up differences between individual methane emissions independent of breed or diet, and it was also well related to important production traits as feed efficiency and growth of beef steers. This work shows the importance of the behavioural circadian rhythms and that these approaches may enhance the quality and meaningfulness of data coming from automated sensors.

As tecnologias baseadas em sensores estão cada vez mais disponíveis e podem ser usadas para coletar informações detalhadas sobre o comportamento animal. Com esta informação é possível avaliar o ritmo circadiano de variáveis comportamentais e monitorar sua resposta. A identificação de variações na resposta deste ritmo tem o potencial de detectar problemas de saúde e questões de bem-estar animal. O objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar os ritmos circadianos comportamentais como uma nova abordagem para monitorar ovelhas em sistemas extensivos e estudar a emissão de metano, eficiência alimentar e crescimento de novilhos de corte. Este trabalho foi composto por dois experimentos (ovinos e bovinos). Foram utilizados cochos automatizados e sensores de atividade baseados em acelerômetro para coletar informações detalhadas do comportamento ingestivo (bovinos) e do comportamento de atividade (ovinos e bovinos), juntamente com as características de desempenho animal. Estes dados foram utilizados para calcular a percentagem de comportamento cíclico harmônico/sincronizado a cada período de 24 h. Essa porcentagem é chamada de grau de acoplamento funcional (DFC) e é calculada com uso de um período móvel de sete dias. No experimento com ovinos, um total de 29 ovelhas Scottish Blackface foram monitoradas por quatro semanas em cada estação do ano, em sistema extensivo nas terras altas da Escócia. Dados meteorológicos foram coletados diariamente. Modelos estatísticos de regressão com efeito aleatório foram utilizados para avaliar a variação da resposta entre indivíduos. Houve uma forte dinâmica criada pelas estações do ano e pelo ciclo produtivo/fisiológico das ovelhas. Durante a primavera e o verão, o desvio padrão do DFC foi um melhor estimador do ganho de peso quando comparado ao índice de moção. A combinação da análise do DFC e o agrupamento de indivíduos com base em sua resposta às variáveis ambientais oferece potencial para obter informações relevantes para o manejo do rebanho. O experimento de bovinos foi conduzido com duas dietas contrastantes (volumoso: concentrado 8:92 e 50:50) e duas raças (40 mestiços Charolês e 40 Luing). Os padrões diurnos de ingestão e atividade foram altamente sincronizados. O ritmo circadiano da atividade foi importante para explicar as diferentes emissões de metano entre indivíduos, independente da raça ou dieta, e também teve ligação com a eficiência alimentar e o crescimento dos novilhos. Este trabalho mostra a importância dos ritmos circadianos comportamentais e como essas abordagens podem melhorar a qualidade e o significado dos dados provenientes de sensores automatizados. / Sensor-based technologies are becoming increasingly available and can be used to gather detailed information about animal behaviour. With this information it is possible to assess animal behavioural circadian rhythm and monitor its response. Identifying breakdowns of this rhythm has the potential to detect health problems and animal welfare issues. The aim of this work was to study the behavioural circadian rhythms as a novel approach to monitor sheep in extensive systems and to study the differences between beef steers production traits, in methane emission, feed efficiency and growth. This work consisted of two experiments, one dealing with sheep in an extensive system and the other with housed beef steers. Automated feed intake equipment and accelerometer-based activity sensors were used to collect detailed information on feed intake (for cattle) and activity behaviour (for sheep and cattle), alongside animal performance characteristics. These data were used to calculate the percentage of cyclic behaviour that is harmonic/synchronized to each 24 h period as Degree of Functional Coupling (DFC) shown within rolling seven day periods. In the sheep experiment, in total twenty-nine Scottish Blackface ewes were monitored for four consecutive weeks in each season across a full year, in an extensive system on Scottish upland pastures. Weather data were collected daily. Random regression statistical models were used to assess between-individual variation in response to the weather. There was a strong dynamic created by the seasons and by the production and physiological cycle in sheep in these high latitude systems. Over the spring and summer period, the variation in the response of DFC was a better estimator of BWG (Body Weight Gain) than the use of a simple motion index. The combination of circadian rhythm analysis and the clustering of individuals into groups based around their regression response to environmental variables provides considerable potential to glean information relevant for group and individual animal management. The cattle experiment was conducted with two contrasting diets (concentrate-based and mixed diet) and two breeds (40 crossbred Charolais and 40 purebred Luing). The diurnal patterns of feeding and activity behaviours were strong and highly synchronised. Activity rhythmicity was well suited to show up differences between individual methane emissions independent of breed or diet, and it was also well related to important production traits as feed efficiency and growth of beef steers. This work shows the importance of the behavioural circadian rhythms and that these approaches may enhance the quality and meaningfulness of data coming from automated sensors.

O dimorfismo sexual varia consideravelmente entre populações dentro de uma mesma espécie. Essa variação na direção e na magnitude do dimorfismo sexual é, em parte, devida às diferenças sexuais na respostas plásticas às condições e aos recursos ambientais. Por meio de experimentos em laboratório, sabe-se que a temperatura e a disponibilidade de alimento são fatores importantes na geração de variações morfológicas inter-individuais e que seus efeitos diferem entre machos e fêmeas. Usamos indivíduos da tesourinha Labidura xanthopus (Dermaptera) coletados em 20 localidades ao longo da costa brasileira para investigar como o tamanho corporal e o tamanho do armamento de machos e fêmeas variam em um gradiente natural de temperatura. O tamanho do corpo diminuiu com o aumento da temperatura, mas o dimorfismo sexual se manteve constante ao longo do gradiente de temperatura. Para o tamanho do armamento, encontramos uma relação negativa para machos e positiva para fêmeas. Conseqüentemente, a magnitude do dimorfismo sexual no tamanho do armamento diminuiu ao longo do gradiente de temperatura. Para entender o efeito da disponibilidade de alimento sobre a expressão de características morfológicas em cada um dos sexos, manipulamos a dieta durante o desenvolvimento de indivíduos provenientes de uma população de clima tropical e uma de clima temperado. Independente da população, o dimorfismo sexual foi causado por diferenças sexuais na dependência de condição. Machos e fêmeas diferiram não apenas na magnitude da resposta, mas também na direção. Em relação ao comprimento relativo dos fórceps, em particular, os resultados obtidos em laboratório não apóiam que a variação encontrada em campo se deve à disponibilidade de alimento. Outros fatores que não levamos em consideração, tais como densidade populacional, podem exercer um papel importante na resposta de machos e fêmeas em relação ao tamanho do armamento. Por fim, mais estudos experimentais comparando populações com diferenças marcantes de condições ambientais poderão lançar luz sobre quais fatores ecológicos podem ter favorecido a evolução do dimorfismo sexual dependente de condição / Sexual dimorphism varies considerably among populations within species. This variation in the direction and magnitude of sexual dimorphism is partially explained by sexual differences in phenotypically plastic responses to environmental conditions and resource availability. Laboratory experiments have already shown that temperature and food availability are important factors promoting inter-individual morphological variation and that their effects differ between males and females. We used individuals of the earwig Labidura xanthopus (Dermaptera) collected from 20 Brazilian localities to investigate how body size and weapon size of males and females vary across a natural temperature gradient. Body size decreased with increasing temperature, but sexual size dimorphism remained constant across the temperature gradient. For weapon size, we found a negative relationship for males and a positive relationship for females. Thus, the magnitude of sexual dimorphism in weapon size decreased across the temperature gradient. To understand the effect of food availability on the expression of morphological traits in each sex, we manipulated the diet of individuals from a tropical and temperate population. Regardless of the population, sexual dimorphism was caused by sex-differences in condition dependence. Males and females differed not only in the magnitude of their responses, but also in the direction. Regarding the relative length of the forceps, in particular, our results do not support the interpretation that the morphological variation observed in the field is explained by differences in food availability. Other factors not considered here, such as population density, may play an important role in determining weapon size variation in males and females under natural conditions. Finally, more experimental studies comparing populations with marked differences in environmental conditions may shed light on which ecological factors have favored the evolution of condition-dependent sexual dimorphism

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / Many areas in the Caatinga result from the interaction between man and his environment. As a result, some phytosociological studies compared the floristic composition of areas with different stages of secondary succession. From these surveys, the question is: high density Poincianella pyramidalis (Tul.) L.P.Queiroz areas of secondary vegetation of caatinga relates to the regeneration strategies of initial species and the absence or low density of Amburana cearensis (AllemÃo) A.C. Sm relates to the strategies of regeneration secondary species ? To answer this question , it has been hypothesized that the strategies of regeneration Poincianella pyramidalis (Tul.) L.P.Queiroz are initial species and the Amburana cearensis (AllemÃo) A.C. Sm of late species. To test this hypothesis the study aims to characterize the occurrence of two species in a tropical dry forest of Brazil (Caatinga) about the strategies for natural regeneration in ecological succession. For this work is divided into three chapters, in which the two species was studied in chapter 1 biometrics of fruits and seeds, in Chapter 2 we evaluated the germination process at different temperatures and in the presence and absence of light and in Chapter 3 evaluated the allocational plasticity of young plants subjected to a gradient shading. The results of biometrics seeds and allocational plasticity reinforce the hypothesis that Poincianella pyramidalis (Tul.) L.P.Queiroz is an early species and that Amburana cearensis (AllemÃo) A.C. Sm a late species. The results show that temperature and light alternating temperature does not reply to corroborate with the highest occurrence of Poincianella pyramidalis (Tul.) L.P.Queiroz in areas where initial and final stage of secondary succession and Amburana cearensis (AllemÃo) A.C. Sm germinates more in the dark than in the presence for the temperatures 15 , 20 and 25  C. The allocational plasticity was higher in Poincianella pyramidalis (Tul.) L.P.Queiroz and Amburana cearensis (AllemÃo) A.C. Sm demosntrou be more tolerant of shade, which helps to maintain that initial Poincianella pyramidalis (Tul.) L.P.Queiroz is a species and that Amburana cearensis (AllemÃo) A.C. Sm is a late species. / Muitas Ãreas na Caatinga sÃo resultantes da interaÃÃo entre o homem e o seu ambiente. Em conseqÃÃncia disso, alguns trabalhos fitossociolÃgicos comparam a composiÃÃo florÃstica de Ãreas com diferentes estÃgios de sucessÃo secundÃria. A partir desses levantamentos, questiona-se: a alta densidade de Poincianella pyramidalis (Tul.) L.P.Queiroz em Ãreas de vegetaÃÃo secundÃria da Caatinga relaciona-se com as estratÃgias de regeneraÃÃo de espÃcies iniciais e a ausÃncia ou baixa densidade de Amburana cearensis (AllemÃo) A.C. Sm relaciona-se com as estratÃgias de regeneraÃÃo de espÃcies tardias? Para responder essa pergunta, tem-se como hipÃtese que as estratÃgias de regeneraÃÃo de Poincianella pyramidalis (Tul.) L.P.Queiroz sÃo de espÃcies iniciais e as de Amburana cearensis (AllemÃo) A.C. Sm de espÃcies tardias. Para testar essa hipÃtese o trabalho tem como objetivo caracterizar as duas espÃcies de ocorrÃncia em uma floresta tropical seca do Brasil (Caatinga) quanto Ãs estratÃgias de regeneraÃÃo natural na sucessÃo ecolÃgica. O trabalho està dividido em trÃs capÃtulos, nos quais das duas espÃcies estudou-se, no capÃtulo 1 a biometria de frutos e sementes, no capÃtulo 2 avaliou-se o processo de germinaÃÃo em diferentes temperaturas e na presenÃa e ausÃncia de luz e no capÃtulo 3 avaliou-se a plasticidade alocacional das plantas jovens submetidas a um gradiente de sombreamento. Os resultados de biometria de sementes e plasticidade alocacional reforÃam a hipÃtese de que Poincianella pyramidalis (Tul.) L.P.Queiroz à uma espÃcie inicial e que Amburana cearensis (AllemÃo) A.C. Sm uma espÃcie tardia. Os resultados de temperatura e luz demonstram que a alternÃncia de temperatura nÃo oferece resposta que corrobore com a maior ocorrÃncia de Poincianella pyramidalis (Tul.) L.P.Queiroz em Ãreas em estÃgio inicial e final da sucessÃo secundÃria e que Amburana cearensis (AllemÃo) A.C. Sm germina mais na ausÃncia de luz que na presenÃa para as temperaturas de 15, 20 e 25 ÂC. A plasticidade alocacional foi maior em Poincianella pyramidalis (Tul.) L.P.Queiroz e Amburana cearensis (AllemÃo) A.C. Sm demonstrou ser mais tolerante à sombra, o que contribui para afirmam que Poincianella pyramidalis (Tul.) L.P.Queiroz à uma espÃcie inicial e que Amburana cearensis (AllemÃo) A.C. Sm à uma espÃcie tardia.

Mangroves are heterogeneous, complex ecosystems and detainers o ecological, social and economic relevance. This argument evoked the investigation of the responses of the mangroves to the environmental variations as much in macroscale as in microscale. For this purpose, in general, the research investigated the action of the weather and of the relative sea level over the potential distribution of Avicennia L.; Laguncularia racemosa (L.) Gaertn f.; and Rhizophora mangle L., on the northern and northeastern brazilian coasts, in the time scale 6.000 before present, 2015 and 2050, as well as the phenotypic plasticity of the leaves of the mangroves of Real-Piauí-Fundo estuary complex, due to abiotic and anthropogenic factors that affect the floristic populations on the Southern coast of Sergipe, Brazil. The deductive method and the General Systems Theory have built the theoretical line for the research. On the analysis of the influence of climatic requirements and the influence on the relative sea level for the potential distribution of mangroves, the models generated from this tool of maximum entropy (MAXENT) showed variations of adequability areas in different scenarios. They also highlighted the influence of the annual temperature and the vertical distance to the nearest drainage as important variables on the predictions. From another point of view, to verify the occurrence of variations of shape and size on the leaves of the mangroves on the inferior, middle and superior estuaries of the Real-Piauí-Fundo estuary, in order to examine the phenotypic plasticity of the leaves, and which way the variation patterns are related to the sedimentological, climatic, and salinity of the water factors, samples of the flora, of sediment, of water, and of 450 leaves of A. schauerianna Stapf and Laechm, 600 leaves of Laguncularia racemose (L.) Gaertn f, and 600 for Rhizophora mangle. In the morphometric analysis, 3 anatomic marks and 16 anatomic semimarks were used on the previously digitalized leaf. The analyses revealed that both the leaf lamina and the size of the leaf showed significant variations among the three estuaries (p< 0.01). Then, even in microscale, tendencies of variation in shape and size of the leaves of the mangroves in the three sampling areas occur, submitted to various environmental pressures. With the purpose of evaluating the vulnerability of the mangroves of estuary complex, among anthropogenic tensors and the possible relation of these tensors with the phenotypic plasticity of the leaf, the methodology was created from systematic observations; from the fixation of attributes of anthropic tension; from the setting of weights for the group of anthropogenic tensors acting of mangroves; from the establishment of levels of vulnerability; and from the analyses of linear regression among shape, size and anthropic tensors. The sector with higher vulnerability is the superior estuary. But, all the areas are submitted to the risks of human actions. The results also showed that both the shape and the size of the leaves of A. schauerianna and R. mangle had significant values (p< 0.01), in contrast to L. racemosa. When concluding and making suggestions, the thesis indicates it´s possible to recreate the ecological history of the environments, to understand the phenomena of the present, both from the predictive modeling, and from the morphogeometric evaluations, and subsidize actions of the mangrove conservations, in order to avoid future losses of the mangrove flora. / Os manguezais são ecossistemas heterogêneos, complexos e detentores de relevância ecológica, social e econômica. Esta assertiva suscitou a investigação das respostas dos mangues às variações ambientais tanto em macroescala, como em microescala. Para tanto, de forma geral, a pesquisa investigou a atuação do clima e do nível relativo do mar sobre a distribuição potencial de Avicennia L.; Laguncularia racemosa (L.) Gaertn.f.; e Rhizophora mangle L., no litoral das regiões norte e nordeste do Brasil, na escala temporal 6.000 antes do presente (A.P.), 2015 e 2050, bem como a plasticidade fenotípica das folhas dos mangues do complexo estuarino Real-Piauí-Fundo, decorrentes de fatores abióticos e antropogênicos que afetam populações florísticas no litoral sul de Sergipe, Brasil. O método dedutivo e a Teoria Geral dos Sistemas constituíram o fio condutor teórico para construção da pesquisa. Na análise da influência de requerimentos climáticos e de influência no nível relativo do mar para distribuição potencial dos mangues, os modelos gerados a partir da ferramenta de Máxima Entropia (MAXENT) mostraram variações de áreas de adequabilidade nos distintos cenários. Eles também destacaram a influência da temperatura anual e da distância vertical à drenagem mais próxima como variáveis de importância nas predições. Por outro ângulo, para verificar a ocorrência de variações de forma e tamanho das folhas de mangues nos estuários inferior, médio e superior do complexo estuarino Real-Piauí-Fundo, a fim de examinar a plasticidade fenotípica das folhas e de que maneira os padrões de variação estão relacionados aos fatores sedimentológicos, climáticos e de salinidade da água, foram coletadas e analisadas amostras da flora, de sedimento, água e de 450 folhas para A. schaueriana Stapf e Laechm, 600 para Laguncularia racemosa (L.) Gaertn.f.e e 600 para Rhizophora mangle L. Na análise morfométrica foram utilizados 3 marcos e 16 semimarcos anatômicos ao longo da folha previamente digitalizada. As análises revelaram que tanto a forma da lâmina foliar, como o tamanho das folhas apresentaram variações significativas entre os três estuários (p<0.01). Logo, mesmo em microescala, ocorrem tendências de variação na forma e tamanho das folhas de mangues nas três áreas de amostragem, submetidas às diferentes pressões ambientais. Quanto à forma e tamanho, não existiu efeito de alometria (p< 0.01). Com o propósito de avaliar a vulnerabilidade dos mangues do complexo estuarino, em meio aos tensores antropogênicos e a possível relação destes com a plasticidade fenotípica foliar, a metodologia foi construída a partir de observações sistemáticas; da fixação de atributos de tensão antrópica; da determinação de pesos para o conjunto de tensores antropogênicos atuantes sobre os mangues; do estabelecimento de níveis de vulnerabilidade; e das análises de regressão linear entre forma, tamanho e tensores antrópicos. O setor de maior vulnerabilidade é o estuário superior. Porém, todas as áreas estão submetidas aos riscos das ações humanas. Os resultados apontaram também que tanto a forma como o tamanho das folhas de A. schaueriana e R. mangle possuíram valores significativos (p<0.01), ao contrário da L. racemosa. Ao concluir e fazer sugestões, a tese indica que é possível reconstruir a história ecológica dos ambientes, entender os fenômenos do presente, tanto a partir da modelagem preditiva, como das avaliações morfogeométricas, e subsidiar ações de conservação dos mangues, a fim de evitar futuras perdas da flora de manguezal.

En climat tempéré, le changement climatique aura pour conséquence une augmentation de la fréquence et de l’intensité des sécheresses. Parmi les facteurs influençant la survie des espèces à cet environnement fluctuant, la plasticité d’ajustement des traits de réponse semble constituer un atout majeur. Ce travail de thèse a étudié de façon intégrée la réponse physiologique et transcriptionnelle du peuplier noir à une carence hydrique progressive jusqu’à un niveau sévère. Dans le cadre d’une analyse globale, la plasticité des traits de réponse physiologiques de la plante et, pour la première fois, celle de l’expression des gènes foliaires a été estimée. Différentes échelles d’étude ont été prise en compte : les génotypes issus de populations différentes, les clones d’un même génotype et les structures de la feuille (nervure principale versus limbe). Un continuum de réponses phénotypiques au déficit hydrique sévère a été identifié permettant de classer la majorité des génotypes étudiés comme évitants avec un seul génotype tolérant, maintenant son développement foliaire, conservant ses feuilles matures et limitant la tension hydrique. Le transcriptome du limbe était profondément remodelé en réponse au déficit hydrique maximal (41% des transcrits différentiellement exprimés) et présentait des fonctions en lien avec la modification de la composition membranaire, le maintien de l’homéostasie cellulaire et la détoxication. L’expression des gènes liés au transport intra- et extra-cellulaire et aux flux d’eau (par les aquaporines) était également fortement régulée. Ces gènes étaient associés aux fonctions de maintien de l’intégrité et de l’hydratation cellulaire du limbe. La modulation du transcriptome était partiellement spécifique de la nervure principale par rapport au limbe. Les 958 transcrits spécifiquement régulés de la nervure principale indiquaient une sur-expression des gènes liés aux métabolismes du glyoxylate et des carbohydrates, et une sous-expression des gènes liés au transport intra- et extra-cellulaire. Ceci pourrait favoriser une accumulation de sucres dans la nervure principale, ce qui permettrait de maintenir les flux de sève et de limiter l’embolie. Les plasticités phénotypiques et transcriptionnelles moyennes calculées étaient différentes entre génotypes. Le nombre de feuilles et le potentiel hydrique foliaire étaient les deux traits permettant de discriminer statistiquement les génotypes par leur plasticité. Le niveau de plasticité de certains transcrits était également spécifique des génotypes : la plasticité transcriptionnelle était forte pour les gènes impliqués dans la fixation du carbone et le transport des messagers secondaires pour le génotype, qui en moyenne, était le moins plastique. L’ensemble de ces résultats permettent de conclure que le génotype le plus tolérant à la sécheresse possédait les plus faibles degrés de plasticités phénotypiques et transcriptionnelles. A l’inverse, les génotypes les plus sensibles détenaient des plasticités phénotypiques et transcriptionnelles plus fortes. Enfin, la régulation du degré de plasticité dépendrait à la fois de mécanismes conservés et d’autres acquis par les génotypes. / In temperate climates, climate change will result in an increase of the frequency and intensity of droughts. Among the factors influencing the species survival in fluctuating environment, trait responses plasticity seems to be a major asset. This thesis has focused on the integrated study of physiological and transcriptional responses of black poplar responding to a progressive water deficit until a severe level. For an overall analysis, plant phenotypic traits responses plasticity and, for the first time, plasticity of the leaf genes expression has been estimated. Different scales of study were taken into account: genotypes from different populations, clones of the same genotype and leaf structures (midrib versus leaf blade). A continuum of phenotypic responses to severe water deficit was identified allowing classifying the majority of the genotypes as sensitive with only one tolerant genotype, maintaining its foliar development, preserving its mature leaves and limiting hydraulic tension. The leaf blade transcriptome was deeply remodeled under severe drought (41% differentially expressed transcripts) and exhibited functions related to the modification of the membrane composition, maintenance of cellular homeostasis and detoxication. Transcripts related to intra- and extra-cellular transport and water flows (by aquaporins) were also highly regulated and associated with integrity and cellular hydration functions of the leaf blade. The transcriptome modulation was in part specific to the midrib compared to the leaf blade. The 958 specifically regulated transcripts of the midrib indicated up-regulation of genes implied in glyoxylate and carbohydrates metabolisms and down-regulation of genes involved in intra- and extra-cellular transport. In consequence, these modifications may favor sugar accumulation in the midrib and could force the sap flow and limit embolism. The estimated mean phenotypic and transcriptional plasticities were different between genotypes. The number of leaves and the leaf water potential were the two traits allowing discriminating statistically the genotypes by their plasticity. The plasticity level of some genes expression was also specific to genotypes: transcriptional plasticity was high concerning genes involved in carbon fixation and transport of secondary messengers for the genotype, which on average was the least plastic. All these results allowed concluding that the most drought-tolerant genotype possessed the lowest degrees of phenotypic and transcriptional plasticities. Conversely, the most sensitive genotypes hold high phenotypic and transcriptional plasticities. Finally, the regulation of the plasticity degree would depend on both preserved mechanisms and others acquired by the genotypes.

Les changements climatiques altèrent la phénologie des organismes, c’est-à-dire la succession dans le temps des éléments de leur cycle de vie. L’expression de la diapause chez les insectes, soit l’arrêt de développement permettant de survivre aux dégradations saisonnières de l’environnement biotique et abiotique, est en particulier affectée. Cette thèse aborde différents facteurs environnementaux agissant sur les stratégies saisonnières des parasitoïdes de pucerons du genre Aphidius. Dans les agro-systèmes céréaliers de l’ouest de la France, les communautés d’hôtes et de parasitoïdes ont changé rapidement au cours de la dernière décennie. Ainsi, plusieurs espèces de parasitoïdes n’entrent plus qu’en faible proportion en diapause, dû à l’augmentation des températures, à la baisse du nombre de jours de gel et à la présence accrue de leurs hôtes pendant l’hiver ; ces pressions de sélection agissent sur les seuils d’entrée diapause. Les parasitoïdes présentent des ajustements plastiques de leur réponse aux stimuli environnementaux qui induisent la diapause. Ils y entrent en plus forte proportion s’ils se développent dans des morphes de pucerons sexués (annonciateurs de ressources limitées) que dans des hôtes asexués, ce qui souligne la co-évolution de leurs cycles de vie. Cette plasticité s’avère également transgénérationnelle puisque la compétition entre femelles induit la diapause estivale chez leurs descendants. De plus, l’incidence de la diapause hivernale augmente après plusieurs générations de parasitoïdes soumises aux mêmes conditions. Les adaptations locales des parasitoïdes aux nouvelles conditions environnementales mènent à la perte d’expression de la stratégie de diapause – qui comporte des coûts écologiques et physiologiques – au profit de stratégies hivernales d’activité à l’état adulte. La modification de l’activité-densité des espèces au sein des communautés de pucerons-(hyper)parasitoïdes, due aux changements de stratégie d’hivernation, pourrait bouleverser l’équilibre des réseaux trophiques et altérer positivement ou négativement l’efficacité du service écosystémique de lutte biologique. / Climate changes alter the phenology of organisms, i.e. the succession over time of the elements of their life-cycle. Diapause expression in insects – that is, the developmental arrest allowing survival to seasonal degradations in the biotic and abiotic environment – is particularly affected. This thesis addresses the existence of different environmental factors acting on the seasonal strategies of Aphidius aphid parasitoids. In cereal agro-systems of western France, host and parasitoid communities have changed rapidly over the past decade. Hence, some parasitoid species enter diapause at low levels due to temperature increase, decrease in frost events and the presence of their hosts during winter, which impose selection on diapause induction thresholds. Parasitoids show plastic adjustments of their response to environmental stimuli inducing diapause. They enter diapause at higher proportion if they develop in sexual morphs of aphids (which inform for upcoming limited resources) than in asexual hosts, which underlines the co-evolution of their life-cycles. Transgenerational plasticity is also involved in these responses since maternal competition induces summer diapause in their offspring. Moreover, winter diapause incidence increases after some parasitoid generations experience the same environmental conditions. Local adaptations of parasitoids to new environmental conditions lead to a loss of diapause expression – which involves ecological and physiological costs – to the benefit of adult overwintering strategies. Modifications in species activity-density within aphids-(hyper)parasitoids communities, due to changes in overwintering strategies, could affect food-webs’ stability and alter positively or negatively the efficiency of biological pest control.

Abstract Plants and animals colonized Northern Europe after the last Ice Age from different refugia, not covered by the ice sheet. Many plants, such as the northern rock cress (Arabidopsis lyrata ssp. petraea) adapted to the short growing season in the North. We thus expect that colonization of the new environment was accompanied by directional selection for traits conferring this adaptation. In this thesis I studied whether recent directional selection can be detected in two important genes, PHYTOCHROME A (PHYA) and FLOWERING LOCUS C1 (FLC1), related to the flowering time pathway. To detect directional selection, I compared DNA sequence variation from the samples of a southern (Plech, Germany) and a northern (Spiterstulen, Norway) population. I also studied the current response potential to changing conditions in the marginal Spiterstulen population. Adaptation potential was characterized by assessing plasticity and amount of additive genetic variation, focusing on flowering traits. In addition, associations of 21 flowering time candidate genes for phenological and fitness traits were studied. There were several lines of evidence for recent directional selection in both candidate genes, PHYA and FLC1, in the northern Spiterstulen population Variation was strongly reduced around both genes and in addition they were highly differentiated between populations. In the Spiterstulen population there was a remarkable reduction in additive genetic variation for flowering traits, for instance when compared with morphological traits. On the other hand, phenological traits showed high plasticity. Some of the photoperiodic pathway genes showed association to flowering or reproductive fitness. The results suggest that directional selection during the colonization of the northern areas has impacted the two studied genes. Genetic changes were likely involved in altered photoperiodic and vernalization responses which might be adaptive for a short growing season. Further, directional selection was probably responsible for reducing additive genetic variation in flowering traits. Because there was only little genetic variation, adaptation to future environmental change of the marginal Spiterstulen population is likely to rely largely on plastic reactions to environmental signals, or tracking the environment by dispersal. / Tiivistelmä Kasvit ja eläimet levittäytyivät Pohjois-Eurooppaan viimeisen jääkauden jälkeen mannerjäätikön ulkopuolella jääneistä refugioista. Useat kasvit, kuten idänpitkäpalko (Arabidopsis lyrata ssp. petraea) sopeutuivat pohjoisen lyhyeen kasvukauteen. On syytä olettaa, että suuntaava valinta vaikutti sopeutumisessa tärkeisiin ominaisuuksiin. Tässä väitöskirjassa tutkin voidaanko suuntaavan valinnan aiheuttamia jalanjälkiä löytää kahdesta tärkeästä kukkimisaikageenistä, FYTOKROMI A (PHYA) ja FLOWERING LOCUS C1 (FLC1) geeneistä. Tätä varten vertasin DNA sekvenssimuuntelua pohjoisessa (Norja) ja eteläisessä (Saksa) populaatiossa, kiinnittäen erityisesti huomiota geneettisen muuntelun määrään ja erilaistumiseen. Lisäksi tutkin miten Spiterstulenin reunapopulaatio voi vastata tulevaisuudessa muuttuvaan ympäristöön. Sopeutumispotentiaalia arvioitiin sekä fenotyyppisen plastisuuden että additiivisen geneettisen muuntelun määrällä. Lisäksi tutkin miten vaihtelu 21 kukkimisaikageenissä liittyy fenologisiin ja kelpoisuusominaisuuksiin. Useat merkit viittasivat siihen, että suuntaava valinta oli vaikuttanut kummassakin tutkitussa geenissä. Muuntelu oli vähentynyt voimakkaasti kumpaakin geeniä ympäröiviltä kromosomialueilta, jotka olivat myös selkeästi erilaistuneet. Additiivinen geneettinen muuntelu oli selvästi vähentynyt kukkimisominaisuuksissa verrattuna morfologisiin ominaisuuksiin, mahdollisesti suuntaavan valinnan johdosta. Kukkimisominaisuudet olivat kuitenkin plastisia. Jotkin valojaksoreitin geenit vaikuttivat sekä kukkimiseen että lisääntymiskykyyn. Nämä tulokset osoittavat että suuntaava valinta vaikutti kahteen tutkittuun geeniin pohjoiseen levittäytymisen aikana. Geneettiset muutokset liittyivät todennäköisesti muuttuneisiin valojakso-, ja vernalisaatiovasteisiin, jotka saattoivat edistää sopeutumista lyhyeen kasvukauteen. Koska geneettistä muuntelua oli vain hyvin vähän, fenotyyppisellä plastisuudella on todennäköisesti tärkeä rooli sopeutumisessa muuttuvaan ympäristöön Spiterstulenin reunapopulaatiossa.

Les invasions biologiques sont un composant du changement global et ont des impacts dramatiques sur les écosystèmes, les agrosystèmes et la santé humaine. Néanmoins, ces processus biologiques particuliers offrent la possibilité d'étudier l'évolution phénotypique et génétique en un sur des temps écologiques. En effet, les invasions biologiques impliquent de fortes contraintes environnementales et démographiques sur les populations, et de forts effets sous-jacents de la sélection et de la dérive. Pourtant, les espèces envahissantes sont parmi les colonisateurs les plus prolifiques de la nature, et surprennent par leur capacité à répondre à ces contraintes. Le potentiel évolutif et adaptatif des populations envahissantes a été à de nombreuses reprises proposé comme facteur facilitant le succès de ces invasions. Qu'il s'agisse de processus génétiques d'adaptations (i.e. des changements de fréquences d'allèles) ou plastiques (i.e. un ajustement par plasticité phénotypique en réponse à un stimulus environnemental), la capacité de réponse à la sélection des espèces envahissantes les placent au centre des études de la biologie évolutive moderne. Ici, nous utilisons la récente invasion mondiale de la drosophile à ailes tachetées Drosophila suzukii pour étudier en détail les mécanismes de la réponse à la sélection potentiellement impliqués dans le succès de cette invasion. L'analyse des patrons de variations moléculaires neutre, nous ont permit de retracer l'histoire complexe de cette invasion mondiale, et d'évaluer par la suite la divergence phénotypique et l'évolution de la variation génétique quantitative en comparant les populations ancestrales de D. suzukii à leurs populations dérivées. Nous avons pu ainsi estimer les effets de la sélection et de la dérive génétique au cours de cette invasion, et discuter leur importance au regard de l'évolution de la forme de l'aile dans cette espèce. Enfin des protocoles expérimentaux d'analyse de la plasticité phénotypique ainsi que des méthodes de modélisation de niche climatique nous permettent de discuter l'influence de la fluctuation des conditions environnementales sur le succès de cette invasion. / Biological invasions are a component of global change and have dramatic effects on ecosystems, agrosystems and human health. Nonetheless, these peculiar biological processes offer a great opportunity for the study of rapid phenotypic and genetic evolution, at an ecological timescale. Biological invasions often involve environmental and demographic constraints on populations, as well as strong effects of selection and drift. However, these species are among the most successful colonialists in nature, and their ability to respond to these constraints is remarkable. The evolutionary and adaptive potential of invasive populations have been proposed as facilitating factors of the success of invasions. Processes of genetic (i.e. changes in allele frequencies) and plastic (i.e. adjustment to environmental fluctuation through phenotypic plasticity) involved in the success of biological invasions are at the center of modern evolutionary biology. Here, we use the recent spread of the spotted-wing Drosophila suzukii to study the underlying mechanisms of response to selection potentially involved in the success of this global invasion. Analyzing patterns of neutral genetic variation allowed us to decipher the complex history of this worldwide invasion, and subsequently evaluate phenotypic divergence and evolution of quantitative genetic variation among ancestral and derived populations. We thus estimated the effects of selection and drift throughout this invasion and discuss their importance regarding the evolution of wing shape in this species. Finally, experimental protocols on the analysis of phenotypic plasticity as well as Species Distribution Modeling methods allowed us to discuss the influence of environmental fluctuations on the success of this invasion.

An appreciation of the role of mutualism is essential when studying ecology and evolution in most ecosystems. Information covering aspects of mutualistic interactions can serve as a complement to the somewhat one-sided perspective from the 1950’s and 60’s that is used when teaching biology. In this thesis I applied an in-depth approach in which variation in the interspecific interaction between Aphis fabae aphids and Lasius niger ants was studied both in the field and in the laboratory. An emphasis was put on studies spanning several consecutive aphid generations. This approach revealed important differences between ant tended aphids and those without ants. In the lab, I found an initial decrease in aphid adult size and reproductive investment in the first generations after the start of ant tending, which was followed by a recovery to the pre-tending situation after about four generations. Another laboratory experiment showed an increase in alate (winged aphid) production from exposure to aphid alarm pheromones, and an even stronger decrease in alate production from ant attendance, suggesting that ants have gained the upper hand in an evolutionary conflict over aphid dispersal. Results from a field experiment further emphasized the possibility of negative effects of ants on aphids, showing that ant-tended aphid colonies experienced a higher rate of parasitoid attacks, produced fewer alates and embryos in adult aphids. The thesis highlights the scope for variation in the net effect of the interaction for aphids, and argues that, depending on the environmental circumstances, the interaction may sometimes and perhaps even often not really be a case of mutualism. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following paper was unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 4: Manuscript.</p>