The objective of this thesis is to understand and improve optical and electrical confinement to achieve cost-effective high-efficiency thin p-type Si solar cells. Optical confinement is achieved by front surface texturing in conjunction with an internal reflective layer on the back surface. Electrical confinement is obtained through the use of a high-lifetime material coupled with high-quality passivation on both surfaces. This research is divided into five tasks. In the first task, Ga-doped Cz Si was investigated to achieve a high and stable lifetime. It was found that for 1 ohm-cm nominal-resistivity screen-printed Al-back surface filed (BSF) cells, the Ga-doped ingot gave ~1.5% higher absolute efficiency after light-soaking relative to the B-doped counterpart. The benefit of using Ga is therefore quite explicit. In the second task, the screen-printed Al-BSF was investigated to explore its potential and limitations for achieving high-efficiency cells. It was found that there exists a critical alloying temperature for a given Al-thickness, above which the Al-BSF becomes non-uniform and cell performance starts to degrade. This puts a limit on the quality of the Al-BSF that can be achieved. An alternative way of back passivation involving dielectric/metal layers was therefore explored. In Task three, two key requirements for achieving high-efficiency dielectric back-passivated cells were established through device modeling. These are (1) a formation of a high-quality BSF underneath the local back contact through vias in the dielectric and (2) a high-quality dielectric passivation with either a moderate positive charge density or a high negative charge density. Task four involved the development of a metallization technique through vias in the dielectric to achieve a high-quality contact and an efficient internal reflector in conjunction with a high-quality local BSF. Further, a novel dielectric system composed of a spin-on SiO<SUB>2</SUB> layer capped with SiN<SUB>x</SUB> was developed that exhibited excellent passivation and a moderate positive charge density. The final task involved fabrication and analysis of dielectric back-passivated cells. The new dielectric and process sequence developed in this thesis resulted in screen-printed solar cells with efficiency as high as 19% with the potential for 20% efficient cells on 100-µm thick Si substrates.

Thesis (M.E. Mechanical Engineering)--University of Waikato, 2007. / Title from PDF cover (viewed May 6, 2008) Includes bibliographical references (p. 102-108)

Honors Project--Smith College, Northampton, Mass., 2009. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 49-50).

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 1998. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves [108]-114).

Thesis (M.S.)--Humboldt State University, 2009. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 163-167). Also available via Humboldt Digital Scholar.

Σκοπός της συγκεκριμένης διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι να εξεταστεί η ποιότητα ισχύος ενός μονοφασικού φωτοβολταϊκού συστήματος συνδεδεμένου στο δίκτυο. Αρχικά αναλύονται οι βασικές μονάδες από τις οποίες αποτελείται το φωτοβολταϊκό σύστημα και στη συνέχεια ακολουθεί ο σχεδιασμός και η εξομοίωσή του χρησιμοποιώντας το λογισμικό MATLAB/Simulink. Στο πρώτο κεφάλαιο γίνεται μια εισαγωγή σχετικά με τις ανανεώσιμες πηγές ενέργειας, την ανάγκη χρησιμοποίησης τους και τα πλεονεκτήματα που παρουσιάζουν τα φωτοβολταϊκά συστήματα, σε σχέση με τις υπόλοιπες πηγές που υπάρχουν διαθέσιμες σήμερα. Στο δεύτερο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζεται η ηλιακή ακτινοβολία. Δίνονται στοιχεία για τον ήλιο και το ηλιακό δυναμικό της χώρας μας, ενώ στη συνέχεια εξηγούνται κάποια χαρακτηριστικά μεγέθη της ηλιακής ακτινοβολίας. Στο τρίτο κεφάλαιο αναλύεται η φωτοβολταϊκή γεννήτρια. Παρουσιάζεται αρχικά το φωτοβολταϊκό φαινόμενο, ενώ στη συνέχεια γίνεται μια αναλυτική περιγραφή των ηλιακών κυττάρων, καθώς και της ομαδοποίησης αυτών που οδηγεί στη δημιουργία των φωτοβολταϊκών πλαισίων και κατ’ επέκταση της φωτοβολταϊκής συστοιχίας. Στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται οι αντιστροφείς, οι οποίοι συνδέουν τη φωτοβολταϊκή γεννήτρια με το δίκτυο. Αναλύεται ο τρόπος λειτουργίας τους και τα λειτουργικά χαρακτηριστικά τους, δίνοντας ιδιαίτερη βαρύτητα στην ημιτονοειδή διαμόρφωση πλάτους παλμών που χρησιμοποιήθηκε στα πλαίσια αυτής της διπλωματικής. Στο πέμπτο κεφάλαιο γίνεται η μελέτη και ο σχεδιασμός του φωτοβολταϊκού συστήματος. Καθορίζονται τα μεγέθη και τα χαρακτηριστικά των κυριότερων στοιχείων από τα οποία αποτελείται, ενώ γίνεται αναφορά και στις απαιτήσεις, όσον αφορά την ποιότητα ισχύος, για την σύνδεση με το δίκτυο ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας. Στο έκτο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζεται όλη η διαδικασία εξομοίωσης του φωτοβολταϊκού συστήματος, χρησιμοποιώντας το λογισμικό MATLAB/Simulink. Αφού γίνει μία εισαγωγή στο λογισμικό, αναλύεται ο τρόπος δημιουργίας κάθε μέρους από το οποίο αποτελείται το φωτοβολταϊκό σύστημα, δημιουργώντας με αυτόν τον τρόπο το τελικό ολοκληρωμένο μοντέλο εξομοίωσης. Στο έβδομο κεφάλαιο γίνεται η εξομοίωση και παρουσιάζονται τα αποτελέσματά της. Σε κάθε στάδιο της εξομοίωσης γίνεται μεταβολή κάποιων σημαντικών παραμέτρων του συστήματος, όπως η προσπίπτουσα ηλιακή ακτινοβολία, ο DC πυκνωτής, το φίλτρο εξόδου, το φορτίο και το μήκος της γραμμή διανομής, ενώ παρουσιάζονται και τα αποτελέσματα των μεταβολών αυτών, όσον αφορά την ποιότητα ισχύος. Στο όγδοο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται κάποια συμπεράσματα και παρατηρήσεις, με βάση τα αποτελέσματα της εξομοίωσης. / The purpose of this thesis is to examine the power quality of single-phase grid-connected photovoltaic system. At first, the basic units of which it is consisted are analysed and then, the whole photovoltaic system is designed and simulated using the software MATLAB/Simulink. The first chapter contains an introduction to renewable energy sources, the reason why they are necessary and the advantages of the photovoltaic systems, in comparison to the other renewable energy sources that are available nowadays. The second chapter deals with solar energy. It is referred to the sun and the high solar potential of Greece, while some typical parameters of solar radiation are explained. The third chapter contains an analysis of a photovoltaic generator. The photovoltaic effect is described, while there is also a detailed description of solar cells and how they are grouped in order to form the photovoltaic panel. The fourth chapter focuses on the inverters, which connect the photovoltaic generator to the grid. It includes an analysis of the way they work and their functional parameters, giving more importance to the sine-wave pulse width modulation (PWM), which was mainly implemented on this thesis. The fifth chapter constitutes the study and design of the photovoltaic system. The values and the parameters of the main parts of which it consists are determined. In addition, the necessary requirements of power quality that should be met, in order to establish a grid connection, are mentioned. The sixth chapter describes the simulation procedure of the photovoltaic system, using the software MATLAB/Simulink. It contains an introduction to the software and an analytical description of the way each part of the photovoltaic system was created, in order to form the complete simulation model. The seventh chapter contains the simulation and its results. The simulation includes various stages, on which critical parameters of the photovoltaic system, such as the solar radiation, the DC capacitor, the output filter, the load and the length of distribution line are changed, in order to see how these changes affect the power quality. The eighth chapter includes some comments and conclusions, regarding the results of the simulation.

Thesis (MScIng)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis investigates methods to extract the maximum amount of electrical energy from a py panel. The thesis is divided into four parts, focussing on different aspects relating to this topic. The first part will investigate the role that py energy is likely to play in South Africa's future energy scenario, by looking at topics like the greenhouse effect and the economics of energy production. Secondly the thesis will look at how to position py panels optimally for maximum energy generation through the year. A software model of a py panel is developed which can calculate available py energy and energy generation costs for a given location, based on parameters like the positioning of the py panel and historic weather data. Thirdly the optimal design of a maximum power point tracker is investigated. The optimal design, based on a k-sweep voltage ratio maximum power point tracking algorithm, is implemented using a DSP controlled boost converter circuit. Finally, the best methods to store energy generated using py panels are explored. Energy storage technologies are compared for rural, off-grid applications in South Africa, and the design and implementation of a pulse-charging lead-acid battery charging strategy is explained. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie tesis ondersoek maniere waarop die maksimum hoeveelheid elektriese energie vanuit 'n py paneelonttrek kan word. Die tesis word in vier dele verdeel, wat elkeen fokus op 'n ander aspek van die onderwerp. Die eerste kyk na die rol wat PV energie potensieël kan speel in die toekomstige energie produksie binne Suid Afrika, deur te kyk na onderwerpe soos die kweekhuis effek, en die ekonomiese sy van energie produksie. Tweedens kyk die tesis na metodes om 'n py paneeloptimaal te posisioneer vir maksimum energie deur die jaar. 'n Sagteware model van 'n PV paneel word ontwikkel wat die hoeveelheid beskikbare energie, en die kostes daarvan, kan bereken vir 'n spesifieke plek, gebaseer op PV paneel data en vorige jare se atmosferiese data. Derdens word agtergrond oor maksimum drywingspunt volgers gegee, en die ontwerp en bou van 'n k-variërende, spannings verhouding maksimum kragpunt volger verduidelik, geimplimenteer deur van 'n DSP en 'n opkapper baan gebruik te maak. Laastens word die beste maniere om PV energie te stoor, vir landelike toepassings weg vanaf die Eskom netwerk, ondersoek. Alle beskikbare tegnologieë word eers vergelyk met mekaar, waarna die ontwerp en bou van 'n puls-laai loodsuur batterylaaier verduidelik word.

Concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) systems are a key step in expanding the use of solar energy. Solar cells can operate at increased efficiencies under higher solar concentration and replacing solar cells with optical devices to capture light is an effective method of decreasing the cost of a system without compromising the amount of solar energy absorbed. CPV systems are however still in a stage of development where new designs, methods and materials are still being created in order to reach a low levelled cost of energy comparable to standard silicon based photovoltaic (PV) systems. This work outlines the different types of concentration photovoltaic systems, their various design advantages and limitations, and noticeable trends. Comparisons on materials, optical efficiency and optical tolerance (acceptance angle) are made in the literature review as well as during theoretical and experimental investigations. The subject of surface structure and its implications on concentrator optics has been discussed in detail while highlighting the need for enhanced considerations towards material and hence the surface quality of optics. All of the findings presented contribute to the development of higher performance CPV technologies. Specifically high and ultrahigh concentrator designs and the accompanied need for high accuracy high quality optics has been supported. A simulation method has been presented which gives attention to surface scattering which can decrease the optical efficiency by 10-40% (absolute value) depending on the material and manufacturing method. New plastic optics and support structures have been proposed and experimentally tested including the use of a conjugate refractive-reflective homogeniser (CRRH). The CRRH uses a reflective outer casing to capture any light rays which have failed total internal reflection (TIR) due to non-ideal surface topography. The CRRH was theoretically simulated and found to improve the optical efficiency of a cassegrain concentrator by a maximum of 7.75%. A prototype was built and tested where the power output increase when utilising the CRRH was a promising 4.5%. The 3D printed support structure incorporated for the CRRH however melted under focused light, which reached temperatures of 226.3°C, when tested at the Indian Institute of Technology Madras in Chennai India. The need for further research into prototyping methods and materials for novel optics was also demonstrated as well as the advantages of broadening CPV technology into the fields of biomimicry. The cabbage white butterfly was proven to concentrate light onto its thorax using its highly reflective and lightweight wings in a basking V-shape not unlike V-trough concentrators. These wings were measured to have a unique structure consisting of ellipsoidal pterin beads aligned in ladder like structures on each wing scale which itself is then tiled in a roof like pattern on the wing. Such structures of a reflective material may be the answer to lightweight materials capable of increasing the power to weight ratio of CPV technology greatly. Experimental testing of the large cabbage white wings with a silicon solar cell confirmed a 17x greater power to weight ratio in comparison to the same set up with reflective film instead of the wings. An ultrahigh design was proposed taking into account manufacturing considerations and material options. The geometrical design was of 5800x of which an optical efficiency of either ~75% with state of the art optics should produce and effective concentration of ~4300x. Relatively standard quality optics on the other hand should give an optical efficiency of ~55% and concentration ratio ~3000x. A prototype of the system is hypothesised to fall between these two predictions. Ultrahigh designs can be realised if the design process is as comprehensive as possible, considering materials, surface structure, component combinations, anti-reflective coatings, manufacturing processes and alignment methods. Most of which have been addressed in this work and the accompanied articles. Higher concentration designs have been shown to have greater advantages in terms of the environmental impact, efficiency and cost effectiveness. But these benefits can only be realised if designs take into account the aforementioned factors. Most importantly surface structure plays a big role in the performance of ultrahigh concentrator photovoltaics. One of the breakthroughs for solar concentrator technology was the discovery of PMMA and its application for Fresnel lenses. It is hence not an unusual notion that further breakthroughs in the optics for concentrator photovoltaic applications will be largely due to the development of new materials for its purpose. In order to make the necessary leaps in solar concentrator optics to efficient cost effective PV technologies, future novel designs should consider not only novel geometries but also the effect of different materials and surface structures. There is still a vast potential for what materials and hence surface structures could be utilised for solar concentrator designs especially if inspiration is taken from biological structures already proven to manipulate light.

D.Ing. / Low system efficiency is a critical problem in photovoltaic (PV) applications due to low efficiency of solar cells. Despite this shortcoming, stand-alone PV systems, have proven to be economical and reliable choices in some applications such as telecommunications, vaccine refrigeration and water pumping in remote locations. In this study, CAD algorithms for the design of PV water pumping systems have been developed with the objective of maximizing the conversion efficiency from the solar irradiation to the potential energy of water by taking into account the variations in the pumping head. The study starts by developing loss models of various sub-systems in the photovoltaic dc and ac motor drive water pumping systems. Using MathCad, these models are then used in the simulation of the system. The simulation results are verified experimentally using their equivalent circuit configurations. The efficiency of the array, the pump and the motor are found to be the most critical parameters for the performance of the systems. The efficiencies of other components, such as the inverter, have also been shown to have a significant effect. The study has shown that for operation at the maximum power point, the inclusion of a maximum power tracker is necessary in a dc motor drive system but may be eliminated in PWM inverter-fed induction motor drive systems through proper matching of the system components. The study has further shown that matching of the drive system and the load with the insolation is essential, since maximum system efficiency occurs at a specific head, which varies as the insolation changes. Prior investigation of site insolation variations is therefore a critical requirement.

The performance of photovoltaic (PV) modules in terms of their ability to convert incident photon to electrical energy (efficiency) depends mostly on the spectral distribution of incident radiation from the sun. The incident spectrum finally perceived by the module depends strongly on the composition of the medium in which it has traveled. The composition of the earth’s atmosphere, which includes, amongst others, water vapour, gases such as carbon dioxide and oxygen, absorbs or scatters some of the sunlight. The incident solar spectrum is also modified by the diffuse aspect of radiation from the sky which strongly depends on aerosol concentration, cloudiness and local reflection of the earth’s surface. Although it is well known that the changes in outdoor spectrum affect device performance, little work has been conducted to support this theory. This is probably due to lack of spectral data or in certain instances where data is available, little knowledge of interpreting that data. The outdoor spectral data that one obtains in the field does not come clearly for just simple interpretation. Different analytical interpretation procedures have been proposed, all trying to explain and quantify the spectral influence on PV devices. In this study an assessment methodology for evaluating the effects of outdoor spectra on device performance parameters during the course of the day, seasons and or cloudy cover has been developed. The methodology consists of developing a device dependant concept, Weighted Useful Fraction (WUF) using the outdoor measured spectral data. For measuring PV module’s performance parameters, a current-voltage (I-V) tester was developed in order to monitor the performance of six different module technologies. The Gaussian distribution was used to interpret the data. For hot-spot analysis, different techniques were used, which include Infrared thermographic technique for identifying the hot-spots in the solar cells, SEM and EDX techniques. The AES technique was also used in order to identify other elements at hot-spots sites that could not be detected by the EDX technique. iii Results obtained indicate that multicrystalline modules performance is affected by the changes in the outdoor spectrum during summer or winter seasons. The modules prefer a spectrum characterized by WUF = 0.809 during summer season. This spectrum corresponds to AM 2.19 which is different from AM 1.5 used for device ratings. In winter, the mc-Si module’s WUF (0.7125) peaks at 13h00 at a value corresponding to AM 1.83. Although these devices have a wider wavelength range, they respond differently in real outdoor environment. Results for mono – Si module showed that the device performs best at WUF = 0.6457 which corresponds to AM 1.83 during summer season, while it operates optimally under a winter spectrum indicated by WUF of 0.5691 (AM2.58). The seasonal changes resulted in the shift in WUF during day time corresponding to the “preferred” spectrum. This shift indicates that these devices should be rated using AM values that correspond to the WUF values under which the device operates optimally. For poly-Si, it was also observed the WUF values are lower than the other two crystalline-Si counterparts. The pc-Si was observed to prefer a lower AM value indicated by WUF = 0.5813 during winter season while for summer it prefers a spectrum characterized by WUF = 0.5541 at AM 3.36. The performance of the single junction a-Si module degraded by 67 percent after an initial outdoor exposure of 16 kWh/m² while the HIT module did not exhibit the initial degradation regardless of their similarities in material composition. It was established that the WUF before degradation peaks at 15h00 at a value of 0.7130 corresponding to AM 4.50 while the WUF after degradation “prefers” the spectrum (WUF = 0.6578) experienced at 15h30 corresponding to AM value of 5.57. Comparing the before and after degradation scenarios of a-Si:H, it was observed that the device spends less time under the red spectrum which implies that the device “prefers” a full spectrum to operate optimally. The degradation of a-Si:H device revealed that the device spectral response was also shifted by a 7.7 percent after degradation. A higher percentage difference (61.8 percent) for spectral range for the HIT module is observed, but with no effects on device parameters. Seasonal changes (summer/winter) resulted in the outdoor spectrum of CuInSe2 to vary by WUF = 1.5 percent, which resulted in the decrease in Isc. This was ascertained by iv analyzing the percentage change in WUF and evaluating the corresponding change in Isc. The analysis showed that there was a large percentage difference of the module’s Isc as the outdoor spectrum changed during the course of the day. This confirmed that the 17 percent decrease in Isc was due to a WUF of 1.5 percent. In mc-Si solar cells used in this study, it was found that elemental composition across the entire solar cell was not homogenously distributed resulting in high concentration of transition metals which were detected at hot spot areas. The presence of transition metals causes hot-spot formation in crystalline solar cells. Although several transition elements exist at hot-spot regions, the presence of oxygen, carbon, iron and platinum was detected in high concentrations. From this study, it is highly recommended that transition elements and oxygen must be minimized so as to increase the life expectancy of these devices and improve overall systems reliability