The master thesis The Influence of Photovoltaic Power Plants Disconnection During Frequency Deviations introduce reader to the theory of frequency regulation in the electric power system. The theoretical part introduces regulation reserve that are used by transmission system operator to balance power imbalances. In the next part is made introduction to the system state classification and knowledge of European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity about unsolicited disconnection of photovoltaic plants. The theoretical part of the recommendations and simulations is followed by a part of the work in which the analysis of the implementation of the frequency boundary in which the photovoltaic power plants are operated in selected states of synchronously interconnected Europe. The master thesis continues to explain the origin of power imbalances by introducing a theory of electricity trading. Deterministic frequency deviations are one of the causes of the occurrence of frequent imbalances in the system and are discussed in the following chapter together with a proposal for a possible solution. In the last part of the master thesis are presented simulations that were made to determine the impact of the speed control regulator in the Czech Republic on unsolicited disconnection of photovoltaic power plants.

This thesis estimates the impacts of rooftop photovoltaic (PV) capacity on electricity generation and CO2 emissions in America's Pacific Northwest. The region's demand for electricity is increasing at the same time that it is attempting to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions. The electricity generated by rooftop PV capacity is expected to displace electricity from fossil fueled electricity generators and reduce CO2 emissions, but when and how much? And how can this region maximize and focus the impacts of additional rooftop PV capacity on CO2 emissions? To answer these questions, an hourly urban rooftop PV generation profile for 2009 was created from estimates of regional rooftop PV capacity and solar resource data. That profile was compared with the region's hourly fossil fuel generation profile for 2009 to determine how much urban rooftop PV generation reduced annual fossil fuel electricity generation and CO2 emissions. Those reductions were then projected for a range of additional multiples of rooftop PV capacity. The conclusions indicate that additional rooftop PV capacity in the region primarily displaces electricity from natural gas generators, and shows that the timing of rooftop PV generation corresponds with the use of fossil fuel generators. Each additional Wp/ capita of rooftop PV capacity reduces CO2 emissions by 9,600 to 7,300 tons/ year. The final discussion proposes some methods to maximize and focus rooftop PV impacts on CO2 emissions, and also suggests some questions for further research.

[pt] Problemas de emissão de gases de efeito estufa vem sido amplamente discutidos nos últimos anos, uma vez que mais de 70 países já se comprometeram a uma economia neutra em carbono até 2050. A eletrificação dos modais de transporte tem sido ampliadas seguindo essas metas, onde os Veículos Elétricos (VEs) começam a ganhar participação sobre o mercado de Veículos com Motor de Combustão Interna (VMCI) por todo o mundo. Além da particular complexidade na comparação entre VEs e VMCIs, desafios envolvendo a natureza dos VEs e sua integração com as cidades, como a falta de locais públicos para recarga, também são críticos e interferem no seu desenvolvimento. Nesse contexto, este trabalho visa estudar o problema de uma Estação de Troca de Baterias (ETB), uma estrutura onde os usuários de VEs trocam suas baterias descarregadas por outras totalmente ou parcialmente carregadas. No intuito de simular as operações diárias do ETB e o cronograma de carregamento das baterias, um novo modelo de Programação Linear Inteira Mista (PLIM) é proposto, levando em consideração a heterogeneidade da bateria, o uso de geração fotovoltaica (PV) local e a degradação da bateria com base no perfil de carregamento. Uma coleção de métricas de operação do ETB é projetada para avaliar a qualidade da solução do modelo de cronograma proposto. É apresentado um experimento numérico que compreende quatro estudos de caso baseados em dados reais dos sistemas de energia e transporte dos EUA, contendo insights e análises sobre o uso da energia fotovoltaica e da rede, bem como uma comparação financeira do ETB com abordagens de cronograma de benchmarks relacionados, juntamente de sensibilidades no plano de dimensionamento do ETB e atendimento a clientes. / [en] Greenhouse gas emissions-related issues have been extensively discussed in the past years, with over 70 countries already committed to a carbon-neutral economy by 2050. The electrification of transportation modals has increased following these goals, where Electric Vehicles (EVs) are starting to take Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (ICEV) market share all over the globe. Besides the particular complexity in comparing EVs and ICEVs, challenges involving the nature of EVs and their integration with cities, such as the lack of public locals for charging, are also critical and interfere with their development. In this context, this work aims at studying the problem of a Battery Swapping Station (BSS), a structure where the EVs users swap their depleted batteries for fully or partially charged ones. In order to simulate the BSS daily operations and batteries charging schedule, a novel Mixed Integer Linear Programming (MILP) model is proposed, taking into account battery heterogeneity, the use of local photovoltaic (PV) production and battery degradation based on charging profile. A collection of BSS operation metrics are designed to evaluate the solution quality of the proposed scheduling model. A numerical experiment comprising four case studies based on real data from the US power and transportation systems is presented, with insights and analyses on the PV and grid power use, as well as a BSS financial comparison against close-related benchmark scheduling approaches, together with sensitivities on BSS sizing plan and costumers attendance.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / This thesis presents a converter topology for photovoltaic panels. This topology minimizes the number of switching devices used, thereby reducing power losses that arise from high frequency switching operations. The control strategy is implemented using a simple micro-controller that implements the proportional plus integral control. All the control loops are closed feedback loops hence minimizing error instantaneously and adjusting efficiently to system variations. The energy management between three components, namely, the photovoltaic panel, a battery and a DC link for a microgrid, is shown distributed over three modes. These modes are dependent on the irradiance from the sunlight. All three modes are simulated. The maximum power point tracking of the system plays a crucial role in this configuration, as it is one of the main challenges tackled by the control system. Various methods of MPPT are discussed, and the Perturb and Observe method is employed and is described in detail. Experimental results are shown for the maximum power point tracking of this system with a scaled down version of the panel's actual capability.

This master´s project deals with design of an office building nearly zero energy standard. My master´s project consists of three parts. In the first one I work on technical design of the office building. It is a three-storey building with partial basement. Vertical load-bearing system is partially made from monolithic concrete walls and partially from clay blocks walls. The horizontal load-bearing structures are made of monolithic concrete slab. All roofs are designed as flat roofs. In second part I design all technical equipment in this building. In the last part I compare three types of roof, photovoltaic power plants and evaluate their environmental impact. First type of PV power plant is made by monocrystalline solar cell, second one by polycrystalline solar cell and last one by monocrystalline solar cell with battery system. Environmental impact of these systems is evaluated in Open LCA software. All structures comply with the valid standards and regulations.

In recent years, photovoltaic (PV) power production have seen an increase and the PV power systems are often located in the distribution grids close to the consumers. Since the distributions grids rarely are designed for power production, investigation of its effects is needed. It is seen in this thesis that PV power production will cause voltages to rise, potentially to levels exceeding the limits that grid owners have to abide by. A model of a distribution grid is developed in MathWorks MATLAB. The model contains a transformer, cables, households, energy storage systems (ESS:s) and photovoltaic power systems. The system is simulated by implementing a numerical Forward Backward Sweep Method, solving for powers, currents and voltages in the grid. PV power systems are added in different configurations along with different configurations of ESS:s. The results are analysed, primarily concerning voltages and voltage limits. It is concluded that addition of PV power production in the distribution grid affects voltages, more or less depending on where in the grid the systems are placed and what peak power they have. It is also concluded that having energy storage systems in the grid, changing the power factor of the inverter for the PV systems or lowering the transformer secondary-side voltage can bring the voltages down. / På senare tid har det skett en ökning i antalet solcellsanläggningar som installeras i elnätet och dessa är ofta placerade i distributionsnäten nära hushållen. Eftersom distributionsnäten sällan är dimensionerade för produktion så behöver man utreda effekten av det. I det här arbetet visas det att solcellsproduktion kommer att öka spänningen i elnätet, potentiellt så mycket att de gränser elnätsägarna måste hålla nätet inom överstigs. En modell över lågspänningsnätet skapas i MathWorks MATLAB. Modellen innehåller transformator, kablar, hushåll, energilager och solcellsanläggningar. Systemet simuleras med hjälp av en numerisk Forward Backward Sweep-lösare som beräknar effekter, strömmar och spänningar i elnätet. Solcellanläggningarna placeras ut i elnätet i olika konfigurationer tillsammans med olika konfigurationer av energilager. Resultaten från simuleringarna analyseras främst med avseende på spänningen i elnätet utifrån dess gränser. De slutsatser som dras i arbetet är att solcellsproduktion kommer att påverka spänningen, mycket beroende på var i elnätet anläggningarna placeras och storleken hos dem. Det visas också att energilager, justering av effektfaktor hos solcellsanläggningarna eller en spänningssänkning på transformatorns lågspänningssida kan få ner spänningen i elnätet. / <p>LiTH-ISY-EX--19/5194--SE</p>

A l’aide de la Représentation Energétique Macroscopique (REM) comme outil de modélisation graphique, la modélisation et la gestion d’énergie d’une application stationnaire isolée à base d’un système PEMFC couplé à l’énergie solaire photovoltaïque comme source principale d’énergie sont développées. Afin d’assurer une autonomie du système en combustible, un électrolyseur PEM est intégré au dispositif. En outre, des packs de batteries et de supercondensateurs permettent un stockage d’énergie et de puissance.Grâce à la modularité de la REM, les modèles respectifs des différentes entités énergétiques du système ont été développés avant de les assembler pour reconstituer un modèle global. Une caractéristique propre de la REM étant la commande, une Structure Maximale de Commande (SMC) est déduite du modèle REM du système par application de règles d’inversion.Le phénomène d’effet échelle a permis de dimensionner le système grâce à un profil de consommation domestique d’énergie électrique. Une stratégie de gestion énergétique basée sur la méthode du bilan des flux de puissance et prenant en compte les dynamiques de chaque source a été développée. Différents modes de fonctionnement ont été étudiés. Grâce è un profil d’ensoleillement d’une journée, la pertinence du modèle a été évaluée. Il a été en outre introduit un couplage entre la méthode du bilan des flux de puissance et la logique floue afin que la stratégie de gestion redéfinisse les références des grandeurs électriques en tenant compte de l’état de charge des batteries et de celui des supercondensateurs. / A stand alone multi-source system based on the coupling of photovoltaic energy and both a PEM electrolyser and a PEMFC for stationary application is studied. The system gathers photovoltaic array as main energy source, ultracapacitors and batteries packs in order to smooth respectively fast and medium dynamic by supplying the load or by absorbing photovoltaic source overproduction. Because of the necessity of fuel availability, especially for islanding application like this one, a PEM electrolyser is integrated to the system for in situ hydrogen production.The main purpose being modeling and management of the power flows in order to meet the energy requirement without power cut, a graphical modeling tool namely Energetic Macroscopic Representation (EMR) is used because of its analysis and control strengths. Thanks to the modular feature of the EMR, the different models of each energetic entity of the system are performed before their assembling.By using scale effect, the energetic system sizing is performed according to a household power profile. Then, by the help of the multi-level representation, the maximal control structure (MCS) is deduced from the system EMR model. The electrical reference values of the MCS are generated by applying the power balancing method involving the own dynamic of each source into the energy management strategy. Different behavior modes are taken into account. By considering an irradiance profile for one day, the system is simulated highlighting its suitable behaviour. Moreover, the relevance of the introduced coupling between fuzzy logic controller and the power balancing method is pointed out.

As fontes renováveis de energia, em especial a energia solar fotovoltaica vem ganhando espaço nos últimos anos devido ao avanço da tecnologia, redução dos custos e redução das fontes não-renováveis. Os painéis fotovoltaicos isoladamente ou para pequenas aplicações geram uma baixa tensão de saída e a adequação dos níveis de tensão fornecidos em sua saída aos requeridos pela concessionária de energia elétrica é um desafio. Neste trabalho é apresentada uma nova estrutura modificada da topologia do conversor SEPIC que usa as técnicas de acoplamento magnético série e células multiplicadoras de tensão em conjunto, afim de obter um elevado ganho de tensão, visando a aplicação em fontes renováveis de energia. Optou-se pela solução não isolada, pois esta apresenta diversas vantagens em relação a solução isolada, como: menor peso, volume, custo e maior eficiência energética devido a menores perdas de potência nos indutores acoplados. Também, a utilização da indutância de dispersão, que é um parâmetro intrínseco de um acoplamento magnético, permite a operação com comutação suave ZCS (ZCS, do inglês Zero Current-Switching) no interruptor, aumentando a eficiência da estrutura com a redução das perdas por comutação. No decorrer do trabalho são realizadas as análises das etapas de operação de diversos conversores a partir do conversor SEPIC modificado, evolui-se pela adição de técnicas elevadoras de tensão até a estrutura proposta neste trabalho. Por fim, é realizado o controle em malha fechada utilizando um controlador PID analógico que fornece uma resposta rápida e consequente correção a possíveis mudanças na variável controlada. Os resultados teóricos e experimentais do conversor proposto são descritos neste trabalho para validar as análises desenvolvidas e demonstrar a eficiência da estrutura. O protótipo é desenvolvido para uma aplicação com potência nominal de 200 W, tensão nominal de saída igual a 450 V e uma tensão de entrada variando entre 20 V e 40 V. O rendimento obtido para o conversor proposto operando na frequência de 35 kHz na potência nominal é de 91,28% e eficiência igual a 89,04% para a potência nominal de 200 W na frequência de 90 kHz. / The renewable energy resources, in special the photovoltaic energy has been achieve more space in last years due to technology advances, cost reduction and decrease of the non-renewable energy sources. The photovoltaic panels in isolation or to small applications generate a low output voltage and to comply with of voltage levels provided in panel’s output to those required by electric power concessionaire is a challenge. In this work is presented a new structure modified of the SEPIC converter topology who uses the coupling magnetic series and voltage multiplier cell techniques together, in order to obtain a high voltage gain aiming at application in renewable energy resources. It was has been choosen non-isolated solution, because this present several advantages in relation to the isolated solution, such as: lower weight, volume, cost and high energy efficiency due to smaller power losses in the coupled inductors. The use leakage inductance, who is an intrinsic parameter of the a magnetic coupling, allows soft-switching operation ZCS in switch, increasing the structure’s efficiency with reduction of switching losses. During the work are perform the analysis of the operation steps of several converters as of the modified SEPIC converter and evolves by addition high voltage techniques until the structure proposed in this work. Finally, is performed the closed loop control using the analog PID controller who provides a fast response and consequent correction to possible changes in the controlled variable. The theoretical and experimental results of the proposed converter are described in this work to validate the developed analysis and demonstrate the structure’s efficiency. The prototype is developed to a application with nominal power of 200 W, nominal output voltage equal 450 V and an input voltage varying between 20 V and 40 V. The efficiency obtained to proposed converter operating in frequency of the 35 kHz in nominal power is 91,28% and efficiency equal 89,04% to nominal power in frequency of the 90 kHz.

Este trabalho objetiva contribuir com o planejamento da geração de energia elétrica por meio da utilização de geração fotovoltaica de forma distribuída, ou seja, instalada e em operação em paralelo junto com a rede de distribuição de energia elétrica. Utiliza-se uma abordagem hipotético-dedutiva, buscando hipóteses, na forma de questões orientadoras, que serão testadas por meio do tratamento dos dados coletados e sua posterior análise e interpretação. O método de procedimento é o estudo de caso, sendo escolhida a cidade de Curitiba e o restante dos municípios compreendendo sua Região Metropolitana. A partir da elaboração da revisão na literatura, visando constituir a fundamentação teórica desta pesquisa, é elaborado um breve inventário estatístico e do aspecto de geração de energia elétrica da cidade de Curitiba, no contexto do estado do Paraná. Os procedimentos metodológicos envolvem a simulação de cenários de inserção de geração fotovoltaica distribuída, considerando diferentes níveis de penetração, e seus efeitos sobre curvas de carga reais para a cidade de Curitiba. Foram selecionados 12 dias, considerados críticos, para a análise que contemplou a contribuição fotovoltaica em termos da redução do consumo de energia elétrica, redução de emissões de CO2 e, por fim, capacidade do sistema fotovoltaico em reduzir a demanda máxima do sistema elétrico. Constatou-se que o intervalo de capacidade instalada em energia solar fotovoltaica situa-se entre 40,80 MWp e 55,68 MWp, desconsiderando exceções, e remete a valores de máximo Fator Efetivo de Capacidade de Carga (FECC), para condição de irradiação máxima e irradiação típica, no inverno e verão. Dessa forma, este intervalo é considerado apropriado do ponto de vista do aumento da capacidade do sistema elétrico, devido à presença de geradores fotovoltaicos distribuídos. Além disso, o referido intervalo além de aumentar em mais de 50% a capacidade do sistema elétrico, acarreta em redução anual do consumo de energia elétrica entre 50,8 GWh e 69,4 GWh, além de evitar a emissão de 18.501 toneladas de CO2-eq a 25.251 toneladas de CO2-eq, sendo, portanto, um importante vetor para o aumento da oferta de energia elétrica, aumento da capacidade do sistema elétrico e, por fim, redução de emissões de Gases do Efeito Estufa, principalmente o CO2. / This study aims to deepen knowledge in the item electricity generation planning through the use of distributed generation using solar photovoltaic energy, which means that photovoltaic systems are able to operate in parallel with the electricity distribution network. A hypothetical-deductive approach was developed, seeking hypotheses in the form of guiding questions, which will be tested by treatment of the collected data and their analysis and interpretation. The method of procedure is the case study, being applied to the Metropolitan Region of Curitiba. The literature review aims to be the theoretical basis of this research, therefore it mainly consists of a brief statistical and electrical energy inventory of the city of Curitiba in Paraná state. The methodological procedures involve the simulation of different scenarios for distributed PV generators by varying their Penetration Level, so that the effects on actual load curves for the region analyzed were quantified. 12 critical days were selected to the analysis that included the photovoltaic contribution in terms of reducing electrical energy consumption, reducing CO2 emissions and, finally, the capacity of the photovoltaic systems to reduce the maximum demand of the electrical system of the city. It was concluded that the most appropriate PV Penetration Level, in terms of power, regards with 40,80 MWp up to 55,68 MWp, disconsidering exceptions. This result leads to maximum values of Effective Load Carrying Capacity (ELCC), for maximum and typical solar radiation, during the seasons of winter and summer. In result, this proposed interval represents the better peak shaving capability of PV, because of its higher ELCC parameter. Furthermore, in addition to increase more than 50% in the capacity of the electrical system, there is an annual amount of energy generated about 50.8 GWh and 69.4 GWh, which represents 18,501 to 25,251 tons of CO2-eq avoided. For this reason, solar PV energy is an extremely important and feasible strategy to enhance the electricity generation, the capacity of the electrical system and to reduce greenhouse gases emission, especially CO2.

The major contribution of this dissertation is the development of a new integrated measurement and control system for intermixed biogas and photovoltaic systems to achieve safe and optimal energy usage. Literature and field studies show that existing control methods fall short of comprehensive system optimization and fault diagnosis, hence the need to re-look these control methods. The control strategy developed in this dissertation is a considerable enhancement on existing strategies as it incorporates intelligent fuzzy logic algorithms based on C source codes developed on the MPLABX programming environment. Measurements centered on the PIC18F4550 microcontroller were carried out on existing biogas and photovoltaic installations. The designed system was able to accurately predict digester stability, quantify biogas output and carry out biogas fault detection and control. Optimized battery charging and photovoltaic fault detection and control was also successfully implemented. The system optimizes the operation and performance of biogas and photovoltaic energy generation. / Electrical Engineering / M. Tech. (Electrical Engineering)