Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T12:55:25Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 / Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T14:06:02Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 / Neste trabalho é descrito um método prático e eficiente para dissociar, em subunidades &alpha; e &beta;, quantidades pequenas (da ordem de microgramas) dos hormônios foliculotrofina (hFSH), luteotrofina (hLH) e tireotrofina (hTSH) humana, nativos e recombinantes. A dissociação destes hormônios foi conseguida incubando-os, durante 16 horas, a 37ºC, com diferentes concentrações de ácido acético: 3M, 5M e 0,4M respectivamente para o hFSH, hLH e hTSH. Nestas condições, uma eficiência de dissociação acima de 98% foi obtida. Esta eficiência foi calculada com base nas determinações de massa dos heterodímeros e das subunidades, realizadas por MALDI-TOF-MS. Uma separação rápida e quantitativa das subunidades, com rendimentos da ordem de 80-90%, foi conseguida por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência em fase reversa (RP-HPLC) em uma coluna C4. As subunidades foram caracterizadas quanto à pureza, hidrofobicidade, massa molecular e distribuição de carga por HPLC de exclusão molecular e fase reversa, SDS-PAGE e focalização isoelétrica. Quando analisadas quanto à hidrofobicidade, as subunidades mostraram-se aproximadamente iguais, enquanto as subunidades &beta; dos três heterodímeros apresentaram a seguinte escala de hidrofobicidade: &beta;-hFSH < &beta;-hTSH < &beta;-hLH. Com relação à massa molecular relativa (Mr), as subunidades &alpha; e &beta; do hFSH apresentaram as maiores Mr enquanto as subunidades do hLH as menores. A distribuição dos isômeros de carga das subunidades dos três hormônios ocorreu em uma região ácida, para o hFSH, em uma região básica, para o hLH e em uma região intermediária, para o hTSH. As subunidades &alpha; dos três hormônios, quando analisadas via SDS-PAGE, apresentaram praticamente a mesma mobilidade eletroforética, enquanto as subunidades &beta; apresentaram diferentes taxas de migração (mR), sendo mR &beta;-hFSH < mR &beta;-hTSH < mR &beta;-hLH. Diferenças relativas à massa molecular, hidrofobicidade, migração eletroforética e distribuição de carga foram encontradas entre as preparações recombinantes e hipofisárias dos três hormônios. O método descrito é suave, prático e flexível e pode ser adaptado à dissociação de outras glicoproteínas heterodiméricas recombinantes ou nativas. Permite não só estudos e caracterização direta de cada subunidade, como também detectar a presença de subunidades livres em preparações farmacêuticas, que são contaminantes indesejáveis, sendo, portanto, uma ferramenta extremamente útil para o controle de qualidade de produtos farmacêuticos. / Dissertação (Mestrado) / IPEN/D / Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares - IPEN-CNEN/SP

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / LHX3 is a transcription factor important in pituitary and nervous system development. Patients with mutations in coding regions of the gene have combined pituitary hormone deficiency (CPHD) that causes growth, fertility, and metabolic problems. Promoter and intronic elements of LHX3 important for basal gene expression in vitro have been identified, but the key regulatory elements necessary for in vivo expression were unknown. With these studies, I sought to elucidate how LHX3 gene expression is regulated in vivo. Based on sequence conservation between species in non-coding regions, I identified a 7.9 kilobase (kb) region 3' of the human LHX3 gene as a potential regulatory element. In a beta galactosidase transgenic mouse model, this region directed spatial and temporal expression to the developing pituitary gland and spinal cord in a pattern consistent with endogenous LHX3 expression. Using a systematic series of deletions, I found that the conserved region contains multiple nervous system enhancers and a minimal 180 base pair (bp) enhancer that direct expression to both the pituitary and spinal cord in transgenic mice. Within this minimal enhancer, TAAT/ATTA sequences that are characteristic of homeodomain protein binding sites are required to direct expression. I performed DNA binding experiments and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays to reveal that the ISL1 and PITX1 proteins specifically recognize these elements in vitro and in vivo. Based on in vivo mutational analyses, two tandem ISL1 binding sites are required for enhancer activity in the pituitary and spine and a PITX1 binding site is required for spatial patterning of gene expression in the pituitary. Additional experiments demonstrated that these three elements cannot alone direct gene expression, suggesting a combination of factors is required for enhancer activity. This study reveals that the key regulatory elements guiding developmental regulation of the human LHX3 gene lie in this conserved downstream region. Further, this work implicates ISL1 as a new transcriptional regulator of LHX3 and describes a possible mechanism for the regulation of LHX3 by a known upstream factor, PITX1. Identification of important regulatory regions will also enable genetic screening in candidate CPHD patients and will thereby facilitate patient treatment and genetic counseling.

The uptake and binding of tritiated cortisol, corticosterone, and dexamethasone in cytosols isolated from various regions of non-adrenalectomized (intact) and adrenalectomized sheep brains and pituitaries were studied. [3H]-cortisol and [3H]-corticosterone were bound preferentially by cytosols from the hippocampal and septal regions of the brain, whereas, [3H]-dexamethasone was preferentially bound by cytosol from the pituitary. Cytosols isolated from the brains of adrenalectomized sheep bound significantly more [3H]-corticosterone than did cytosol from the brains of intact animals. Pre-incubation of cytosols from the hippocampus of adrenalectomized animals with non-radioactive testosterone or estradiol did not significantly block the subsequent binding of [3H]-cortisol. Results of pre-incubations with non-radioactive progesterone were non-reproducable with a large standard deviation among replicates. These findings provide evidence that the sites of feedback inhibition are the same in the sheep as described for other mammalian systems, and that in the sheep as in other mammals the principle site of localization of cortisol and corticosterone is in limbic structures of the brain, whereas, the principle site of uptake of dexamethasone is in the pituitary.

Bioinformatic searching on the zebrafish genome indicates that there are five members of this hormone family (namely GH, SLalpha, SLbeta, PRL1 and PRL2) and four receptors (namely GHR1, GHR2, PRLR1 and PRLR2). However, it should be noted that these ligands and receptors are only named according to their sequence homology with those in other species. There is so far no systematic study to unravel the relationship among the ligands and receptors. The last point is particularly relevant as some of the ligands and receptors are duplicated in the fish genome. In addition, there is much controversy regarding whether one of the two GHRs is in fact the receptor for SL. A systematic study on the interaction among the ligands and receptors in zebrafish would help to resolve these issues. / In fish, growth hormone (GH), prolactin (PRL) and somatolactin (SL) are members of a gene family of polypeptide hormones which share homology in protein sequence and structure. To date, numerous functions have been attributed to this family of hormones such as growth, immune response, protein metabolism and ion regulation. The biological functions of GHlPRL are mediated through binding of the ligands on their respective receptors. It is believed that this gene family arose as the result of multiple gene duplications and subsequent divergent evolution, co-evolving with their corresponding receptors. Despite the above mentioned similarities in their structures, their cognate receptors and their signaling mechanisms, important differences among this gene family of polypeptide hormones can be recognized in their biological functions. / In the present study, the luciferase reporter assay, His-tag pulldown assay and signaling pathway activation were employed to investigate the interaction among the ligands and their receptors. It was shown that recombinant zebrafish GH, PRLI and PRL2 could only interact with their cognate receptors, i.e. GHRl, GHR2, PRLRI and PRLR2 respectively. In comparison, zebrafish SLalpha and SLbeta could neither interact with GHR1, GHR2, PRLR1 and PRLR2 in the binding study, nor could these two SLs activate the receptor-mediated downstream signaling and transcriptional activities of the four receptors in zebrafish. These data argue against the hypothesis that GHRI is the SL receptor. / The role of PRLR in early development of zebrafish was also explored. Whole mount in situ hybridization (WISH) study showed that PRLR1 was mainly expressed in the pancreas and pronephric duct, while PRLR2 was expressed in the pronephric duct only. In the PRLR1 morpholino (MO) knockdown embryos, the yolk extension (YE), the formation of which was reported to be associated with pronephric duct development, disappeared at 24 hours post fertilization. This phenotype could not be observed in the PRLR2 MO knockdown or control embryos. Real time quantitative RT-PCR and WISH data revealed that several genes expressed in the pronephric duct were up or down-regulated. The protein expression pattern of pronephric duct marker atplal was also affected in the embryos injected with PRLRI MO. In addition, histological studies showed that structure of the pronephric duct was destroyed in the PRLRI MO embryos. These results suggest that PRLRI plays an important role in the development of the pronephric duct in zebrafish embryos. / Chen, Mingliang. / "October 2010." / Adviser: Cheung Wing-Tai. / Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 73-04, Section: B, page: . / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2011. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 140-179). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Electronic reproduction. [Ann Arbor, MI] : ProQuest Information and Learning, [201-] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstract also in Chinese.

published_or_final_version / abstract / toc / Zoology / Master / Master of Philosophy

Η ηπατική εγκεφαλοπάθεια είναι ένα νευροψυχιατρικό κλινικό σύνδρομο που αναπτύσσεται σε ασθενείς με σοβαρή ηπατική ανεπάρκεια. Οι κλινικές εκδηλώσεις που χαρακτηρίζουν το σύνδρομο ποικίλουν από ελαφρές διαταραχές της ψυχικής κατάστασης μέχρι κώμα, ενώ σε ιστολογικό επίπεδο οι αλλοιώσεις του ΚΝΣ είναι μη ειδικές. Πολλοί μηχανισμοί ενέχονται στην παθογένεια της νόσου, όπως εναπόθεση στο εξωκυττάριο υγρό τοξικών προιόντων που δεν μεταβολίζονται στο ήπαρ, αλλαγές στον αιματοεγκεφαλικό φραγμό, ανώμαλη ισορροπία νευρομεταβιβαστών, διαταραχές μεταβολισμού και ηλεκτρικής ισορροπίας στα νευρωνικά κύτταρα του εγκεφάλου. Σύμφωνα με την τελευταία ταξινόμηση της ηπατικής εγκεφαλοπάθειας (ΗΕ) (Παγκόσμιο Συνέδριο Γαστρεντερολογίας, Βιέννη 1998) προσδιορίσθηκε η κλινική οντότητα της ελάχιστης ή υποκλινικής ηπατικής εγκεφαλοπάθειας σαν υποκατηγορία της ΗΕ σχετιζόμενης με κίρρωση και πυλαία υπέρταση. Η Υποκλινική Ηπατική Εγκεφαλοπάθεια (ΥΗΕ) είναι ο όρος που χρησιμοποιείται για να περιγράψει λεπτές διαταραχές της εγκεφαλικής λειτουργίας και μεταβολές φυσιολογικών παραμέτρων στους κιρρωτικούς ασθενείς που δεν έχουν κλινικές ενδείξεις ηπατικής εγκεφαλοπάθειας. Σε κλινικό επίπεδο παρατηρούνται μια σειρά από διαταραχές σε βιολογικές παραμέτρους όπως ο ύπνος, και περιορισμός σε πολλές φυσικές δραστηριότητες και συμπεριφορές της καθημερινής ζωής. Ενώ η διάγνωση της ΗΕ λόγω της κλινικής της αναγνώρισης δεν παρουσιάζει προβλήματα, η διάγνωση της ΥΗΕ είναι προβληματική, καθώς στις διάφορες σειρές μελετών που μέχρι σήμερα έχουν γίνει το “gold standard” διάγνωσης της νόσου δεν έχει καθορισθεί. Για τον σκοπό αυτό χρησιμοποιούνται ψυχομετρικές δοκιμασίες, ερωτηματολόγια καταγραφής συμπεριφοράς και χρονότυπου, μελέτη ιστορικού ύπνου, ηλεκτροφυσιολογικές μέθοδοι(ΗΕΓ) και νεώτερες νευροαπεικονιστικές τεχνικές (MRI εγκεφάλου). Ανώμαλοι κιρκαδιανοί ρυθμοί σε πολλές βιολογικές παραμέτρους έχουν περιγραφεί σε ασθενείς με κίρρωση ήπατος. Η παρουσία του βιολογικού ρολογιού, του υπερχιασματικού πυρήνα του υποθαλάμου (SCN) με τις προσαγωγές και απαγωγές συνδέσεις του επιτρέπει τον συγχρονισμό των ρυθμών των βιολογικών παραμέτρων με τα εξωτερικά ερεθίσματα που αναπτύσσονται στον 24ωρο κύκλο ημέρας/νύχτας. Οι σύγχρονες απόψεις περιλαμβάνουν δύο βασικές ερμηνείες για τις διαταραχές της κιρκαδιανής λειτουργίας που παρατηρούνται στην χρόνια ηπατική νόσο. Πρώτον, οι ανωμαλίες στους κιρκαδιανούς ρυθμούς ξεκινούν από τις επιδράσεις στον SCN των νευροτοξινών που δεν μεταβολίζονται επί ηπατικής ανεπάρκειας και τις προσαγωγές/απαγωγές συνδέσεις του. Δεύτερον, ο ανώμαλος ηπατικός μεταβολισμός της μελατονίνης και η διαφορετικού βαθμού επίδρασή της στον SCN οδηγεί σε μετάθεση φάσεων, αποσυγχρονισμό ρυθμών και τελικά μεταβολή στην απόδοση του βιολογικού ρολογιού. Φαίνεται ότι και οι δύο ερμηνείες, οι οποίες συνδυάζουν τις επιδράσεις της ηπατοκυτταρικής δυσλειτουργίας και της πυλαιοσυστηματικής αναστόμωσης, είναι υπεύθυνες για τις κιρκαδιανές δυσλειτουργίες στην ηπατική νόσο. Σκοπός της μελέτης είναι, αφού μελετήσει κιρρωτικούς ασθενείς ώστε να τους χαρακτηρίσει ότι πάσχουν από ελάχιστη ηπατική εγκεφαλοπάθεια, να καταγράψει όποιες διαταραχές βιολογικών παραμέτρων όπως ο ύπνος και μεταβολές της καθημερινής συμπεριφοράς, καθώς και το ενδοκρινολογικό τους profile με μελέτη υποφυσιακών ορμονών και της μελατονίνης. Οι ανωτέρω μέθοδοι εν συνεχεία συσχετίσθηκαν με νευροφυσιολογικές μεθόδους(ΗΕΓ) και νευροαπεικονιστικές τεχνικές (MRI εγκεφάλου) στην προσπάθεια προσέγγισης πληρέστερα της διάγνωσης της ΥΗΕ, και αναζήτησης δεικτών πρωιμότερης διάγνωσης της νόσου. Μελετήθηκε ομάδα κιρρωτικών ασθενών χωρίς κλινικά ευρήματα εγκεφαλοπάθειας, με παράλληλη χρησιμοποίηση ομάδας ελέγχου παθολογικών μη ηπατοπαθών ασθενών ίδιας ηλικίας και κοινωνικού profile. Όλοι οι ασθενείς υπεβλήθησαν σε πλήρη κλινική νευρολογική εξέταση, εργαστηριακό βιοχημικό έλεγχο, ψυχομετρικές δοκιμασίες(NCT-A,DST), μελέτη ιστορικού ύπνου και ερωτηματολόγια ανάλυσης χαρακτηριστικών χρονότυπου (BNSQ, Horne) και καθημερινής συμπεριφοράς (SIP), μετρήσεις και ανάλυση κιρκαδιανού ρυθμού υποφυσιακών ορμονών και μελατονίνης, καθώς και ΗΕΓ και MRI εγκεφάλου. Τα αποτελέσματα των ψυχομετρικών δοκιμασιών ήταν παθολογικά σε όλους τους κιρρωτικούς και αφορούσαν διαταραχές λεπτών νοητικών λειτουργιών, κινητική αντίδραση και εγρήγορση. Ιδιαίτερο εύρημα ανεδείχθη από την μελέτη οι διαταραχές του ύπνου στους χωρίς εγκεφαλοπάθεια κιρρωτικούς που περιελάμβαναν μειωμένη διάρκεια νυχτερινού ύπνου, παρατεταμένο χρόνο κατάκλισης πριν την έλευσή του και αυξημένο αριθμό νυχτερινών αφυπνίσεων.Παράλληλα όμως ανεδείχθη από τα ερωτηματολόγια και την μελέτη SIP, ένας χρονότυπος καλύτερης συμπεριφοράς που περιγράφεται ως «Περισσότερο Πρωινός Τύπος» για τους κιρρωτικούς, που συμπίπτει με αυτόν της ομάδας ελέγχου παθολογικών μη ηπατοπαθών ασθενών, αλλά και γενικότερα είναι αποδεκτός από τα καθιερωμένα κοινωνικά status. Το ιστορικό του ύπνου κρίνεται ως απαραίτητο εργαλείο συμπλήρωσης κατά την λήψη του ιατρικού ιστορικού, ενώ τα φαινόμενα ημερήσιας υπνηλίας είναι εύρημα σε πιο προχωρημένα στάδια της νόσου. Η MRI εγκεφάλου ανέδειξε παθολογικά ευρήματα σε 69% των κιρρωτικών ασθενών. Αυτά συνίσταντο σε αυξημένης έντασης μαγνητικό σήμα στις Τ-1 ακολουθίες στα βασικά γάγγλια του εγκεφάλου, ενώ οι μη ηπατοπαθείς ασθενείς είχαν φυσιολογική MRI εγκεφάλου. Η στατιστική ανάλυση των αποτελεσμάτων της μελέτης έδειξε ότι η αυξημένη ένταση του παθολογικού μαγνητικού σήματος εμφάνισε σημαντική συσχέτιση με την επιδείνωση της υπερχολερυθσιναιμίας, την υποαλβουμιναιμία, και την υπερσφαιριναιμία, ενώ συνολικά και με το άθροισμα κατά Child-Pugh. H ανάλυση του ΗΕΓ ανέδειξε παθολογικά ευρήματα-μη ειδικές αλλοιώσεις (θ και δ κύματα σε διάφορους συνδυασμούς) στο 50% των κιρρωτικών χωρίς εγκεφαλοπάθεια και φυσιολογικά ευρήματα στους μη ηπατοπαθείς. Ανευρέθη επίσης στατιστική συσχέτιση μεταξύ της αύξησης του παθολογικού σήματος της MRI εγκεφάλου και της βαρύτητας των ΗΕΓ ανωμαλιών. Μελετήθηκαν επίσης υποφυσιακές ορμόνες, η κορτιζόλη και η μελατονίνη, αναλύοντας τόσο τις απόλυτες τιμές τους όσο και την συμπεριφορά και περιοδικότητά τους μέσα στο 24ωρο. Κύρια ευρήματα ήταν για τις προλακτίνη, θυρεοειδοτρόπο και μελατονίνη, κατά την στατιστική ανάλυση διασποράς και λαμβάνοντας υπόψη την σημαντικότητα του παράγοντα αλληλεπίδρασης, η διαφορετική συμπεριφορά των ορμονών μέσα στο 24ωρο τόσο σε σχέση με την ομάδα ελέγχου των μη ηπατοπαθών ασθενών, όσο και σε σχέση με τα βιβλιογραφικά δεδομένα υγιών μαρτύρων. Η κορτιζόλη δεν ανέδειξε διαφορετική συμπεριφορά 24ώρου σε σχέση με τους μη ηπατοπαθείς παθολογικούς, παρατηρήθηκε όμως μια συνολικά επιμένουσα υποκορτιζολαιμία με έλλειψη των γνωστών εκκριτικών αιχμών της ορμόνης στο 24ωρο.Από την μελέτη επίσης φάνηκε μια μετάθεση της καμπύλης της μελατονίνης προς τις πρωινές ώρες , με αυξημένα επίπεδα το πρωί, και μια αναστροφή της περιοδικότητας στην έκκριση της TSH. Συνολικά παρατηρήθηκε μια διαταραχή στον κιρκαδιανό ρυθμό έκκρισης όλων των ορμονών και απουσία των φυσιολογικών διακυμάνσεών τους στο 24ωρο. Τα αποτελέσματα των ορμονών συγκρινόμενα με τις υπόλοιπες μεθόδους διάγνωσης της ελάχιστης εγκεφαλοπάθειας έδειξαν ότι δεν υπάρχει στατιστικά σημαντική συσχέτιση με την ποσοτική μέθοδο προσδιορισμού του ανθρώπινου χρονότυπου Horne score, και ότι οι μεταβολές της μελατονίνης, προλακτίνης και θυρεοειδοτρόπου δεν σχετίζονται στατιστικά με την ένταση του παθολογικού σήματος στην MRI εγκεφάλου και την βαρύτητα των ΗΕΓ αλλοιώσεων. Για την κορτιζόλη όμως οι μεταβολές των τιμών της σχετίζονται στατιστικά σημαντικά με την αύξηση της έντασης του παθολογικού μαγνητικού σήματος, με την επιδείνωση του βαθμού της ηπατικής επάρκειας(Child-Pugh score), και την επιδείνωση των αλλοιώσεων στο ΗΕΓ. Τέλος, η στατιστική ανάλυση ανέδειξε ότι οι βαρύτερα πάσχοντες κιρρωτικοί (Child score >5) παρουσιάζουν επίταση των ορμονικών διαταραχών, αφού σε αυτούς ανευρίσκονται ακόμα χαμηλότερα επίπεδα κορτιζόλης το πρωί και μελατονίνης το βράδυ. Η μελέτη κιρρωτικών ασθενών, ακόμα και αυτών χωρίς παθολογικά νευρολογικά ευρήματα παρουσιάζει μια σειρά από διαταραχές λεπτών λειτουργιών του ΚΝΣ, αλλά και ανωμαλίες σε πολλές φυσιολογικές και ενδοκρινολογικές παραμέτρους. Στην παρούσα μελέτη οι κιρρωτικοί ασθενείς με ελάχιστη εγκεφαλοπάθεια παρουσίασαν ένα γενικά κοινωνικά αποδεκτό χρονότυπο συμπεριφοράς, «Περισσότερο Πρωινό Τύπο», με σαφείς όμως διαταραχές στον νυχτερινό ύπνο, και περιορισμό σε πολλές λειτουργικές ικανότητες και δραστηριότητες του 24ώρου. Τα αυξημένα πρωινά επίπεδα της μελατονίνης ενοχοποιούνται πρωτίστως για την μετάθεση φάσεων 24ώρου και τις διαταραχές του ύπνου. Στα παραπάνω ευρήματα προστίθενται τα παθολογικά ψυχομετρικά tests ως ειδικοί δείκτες διάγνωσης της ΥΗΕ. Το ΗΕΓ κατέγραψε μη ειδικές διαταραχές στο 50% των κιρρωτικών χωρίς εγκεφαλοπάθεια, όμως η MRI εγκεφάλου φαίνεται ότι έχει μεγαλύτερη ευαισθησία και αξία ως πρώιμος δείκτης νευρολογικών αλλαγών, καθώς το παθολογικής έντασης μαγνητικό σήμα σχετίζεται στατιστικά σημαντικά με παραμέτρους επιδείνωσης της ηπατικής βιοχημείας, με την ταξινόμηση της βαρύτητας της ηπατικής νόσου (Child score),αλλά και τον προοδευτικά αυξανόμενο βαθμό αλλοιώσεων στο ΗΕΓ. Σε επίπεδο ανάλυσης των προαναφερθέντων διαταραχών των κιρκαδιανών ρυθμών των υποφυσιακών ορμονών στην κίρρωση και επί απουσίας έκδηλης εγκεφαλοπάθειας και δοθείσας της θέσης του βιολογικού ρολογιού στον υποθάλαμο, φαίνεται ότι η επίδραση των παθολογικών επιπέδων της μελατονίνης στον SCN καθορίζει σε όποιο βαθμό την απόδοση του κιρκαδιανού βηματοδότη. Δημιουργούνται έτσι μεταθέσεις φάσεων και αποσυγχρονισμός σε πολλές βιολογικές παραμέτρους. Στην διαταραχή της λειτουργίας του βιολογικού ρολογιού συμμετέχουν σαφώς και διαταραχές στα προσαγωγά/απαγωγά μονοπάτια του SCN, οι επιδράσεις των τοξινών που δεν μεταβολίζονται στην ηπατική ανεπάρκεια, ανώμαλη νευρομεταβιβαστική λειτουργία, αυξημένα GABA-εργική δραστηριότητα, και διαταραχές των εγκεφαλικών αστροκυττάρων. Στην παρούσα μελέτη διαφαίνεται ότι οι επιδράσεις των νευροτοξινών προηγούνται, καθώς οι διαταραχές ρυθμού και έκκρισης μελατονίνης παρατηρούνται κυρίως σε πιο προχωρημένα στάδια της ηπατικής νόσου (Child score>5).Παράλληλα η όποιου βαθμού απορρύθμιση των εκλυτικών παραγόντων του υποθαλάμου για τις υποφυσιακές ορμόνες διαταράσσει την περιοδικότητά τους και τα επίπεδά τους με ότι αυτό μεταφράζεται σε κλινικό επίπεδο. Το σημαντικό επίσης στην παρούσα μελέτη είναι και η διαφορετικότητα στην συμπεριφορά των ορμονών μέσα στο 24ωρο των κιρρωτικών χωρίς εγκεφαλοπάθεια, τόσο από μη ηπατοπαθείς παθολογικούς όσο και από τα φυσιολογικά βιβλιογραφικά δεδομένα υγιών μαρτύρων. Αποτελεί τέλος ιδιαίτερο προβληματισμό για τον κλινικό ιατρό η αναζήτηση της ΥΗΕ και κατ επέκταση των αρχόμενων νευρολογικών αλλαγών , τόσο με ανάλυση του ιστορικού και μελέτη ύπνου και νεώτερες νευροαπεικονιστικές τεχνικές(MRI εγκεφάλου), αλλά και αναζήτηση του πρώιμα διαταραγμένου ενδοκρινολογικού profile των ασθενών αυτών. / Hepatic encephalopathy, a major complication of liver cirrhosis, is a clinical syndrome characterized by abnormal mental status occuring in patients with severe hepatic insufficiency. The clinical manifestations range from a slightly altered mental status to coma. In the absence of clinical symptoms, but with a number of disturbances in biological parameters, such as sleep and function abnormalities in every day life, the term minimal hepatic encephalopathy is established. A high proportion of cirrhotic patients ranging from 30% to 70% show neuropsychological or neurophysiological abnormalities, although conventional neurological and mental assessment is normal. In this absence of biological correlates, diagnosis of minimal or Subclinical Hepatic Encephalopathy (SHE) relies on psychometric, neurophysiological and recently neuroimaging tests, although the “gold standard” of this clinical diagnosis has not yet been established. Abnormal rhythms of several biological parameters have been described in patients with cirrhosis. The existence of the “biological” clock, the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) of hypothalamus, with its afferent/efferent connections allows the organism to foresee and anticipate the modifications in the external enviroment that occur during the day/night cycle. Current views propose two explanations for the alterations in circadian function seen in chronic liver disease. First, abnormalities of circadian rhythms arise from the effects on the SCN and/or its afferent/efferent connections of neurotoxins implicated in the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy. Second, the impaired hepatic metabolism of melatonin results in elevated morning plasma levels that cause a phase shift of the output from the circadian clock. It is possible that both explanations, that combine the effects of hepatocellular dysfunction and portal-systemic shunting, are responsible for the circadian abnormality in liver disease. The aim of this study was to evaluate cirrhotic patients without evidence of encephalopathy, and as they have been characterized with the term minimal encephalopathy, to describe their clinical status, analyze their chronotypology, and redifine neuropsychiatric abnormalities and abnormal daily activities using psychometric tests, neurophysiologic exams (HCG) and neuroimaging images (brain MRI). Aim also of the study was to analyse the endocrinologic profile of cirrhotics without encephalopathy, trying to correlate any abnormal circadian rhythm of hormones with biological parameters, clinical performances and laboratory tests. Twenty six cirrhotic patients without signs of encephalopathy and a controll group of thirteen patients without hepatopathy, and normal neurological exam, took part in the study. Psychometric status was evaluated using NCT-A and Digit Symbol test, also the Sickness Impact Profile (SIP) analysis was used. The findings of NCT-A and DST studies were a worse performance of cirrhotic subjects in psychomotor speed and attention. A diminished level of daily functioning in patients with minimal HE, reflected by significantly impairments of all SIP categories, was recognised, while non hepatopathy patients did not exhibit such abnormalities. Further analysis of everyday activities using BNSQ and Horne Score tests took place, while an interview of sleep history was performed. Results of these tests showed a chronotypology of Moderate Morningness Type, although non encephalopathic cirrhotics were found to have some particular sleep abnormalities. These were found to be a decreased sleeping time (<6h/night), sleep latency>30 min, and often awakenings during night sleep (>3 episodes/night). Although chronotypology of non hepatopathy patients was the same, Moderate Morningness Type, sleep abnormalities were not described in non cirrhotic group. Sleep history is recognised as a necessary tool for the assessment of early neurological abnormalities, and Evening chronotypology of cirrhotic patients is probably related with more severe liver disease. An awake 16-channel digital EEG was performed on all patients. The abnormal EEG findings were analysed as specific( epileptic form or paroxysmal) and non specific disturbances( theta and delta waves in various combinations). Furthermore, the non specific disturbances were classified as mild, moderate and severe. The EEG analysis demonstrated non specific disturbances in 50% of cirrhotics, while the rest of them had normal EEG recording. In the neuroimaging field, all patients underwent a brain MRI exam. 69% of cirrhotic patients exhibited abnormal signal intensity on T-1 weighted images. The affected sites were globus pallidus, putamen or both. The abnormality consisted of high billateral and symmetrical signal intensities of various extents. These abnormalities, compared to the signal of the adjacent white matter of the brain, were classified into three grades: Grade 0: no alterations, Grade 1: mild, Grade 2: severe. No abnormalities were demonstrated on T2-weighted images. According to a qualitative classification 12 patients were classified as Grade 1, 6 as Grade 2, whereas 8 patients had no alterations in the basal ganglia. None patient of the controll group exhibit any MRI abnormalities. There was a significant correlation between quantitative assessment of signal intensity in brain MRI and severity of EEG abnormalities. Using variant analysis to investigate further this relationship, a significant linear association was found between EEG grading and signal MRI intensity. MRI abnormalities were found in 40% of cirrhotics with normal EEG, suggesting MRI as a more sensitive method of evaluating patients with subclinical hepatic encephalopathy. Brain MRI abnormalities were also correlated with liver biochemistry and Child-Pugh category. In our study, Child score and albumin level were identified as significant predictors of the MRI signal intensity.The level of brain MRI abnormalities was also parallel with deterioration of serum bilirubin and globulins, as significant statistical correlations between these parameters were found. The levels and the circadian rhythmicity of cortizol, the pituitary hormones TSH and prolactin, and melatonin which is excreted by the pineal gland are also analysed in non encephalopathic cirrhotics. The results and the statistical analysis showed a disruption of the 24h cycle for melatonin, prolactin and TSH, regarding to normal levels and circadian rhythm. A different behaviour of each hormone in the 24h cycle regarding to non cirrhotic patients was also recognised. For cortisol the circadian rhythmicity was not affected, while the 24h plasma levels of the hormone were suppressed. Statistical analysis showed no significant correlation between the results of hormones tests and chronotypology. No statistical correlation was detected between levels of melatonin, prolactin and TSH, and the severity of brain MRI abnormalities and abnormal EEG findings. On the contrary, statistical analysis showed a relation between the levels of cortisol and brain MRI abnormalities, between 24h cortisol levels and EEG disturbances, also a correlation between cortisol levels and deterioration of hepatic sufficiency was recognised (Child score>5). Similar, disturbances of melatonin levels were correlated with the degree of liver insufficiency. As a conclusion of this study, cirrhotic patients with minimal encephalopathy have sleep disturbances and a chronotypology described as Moderate Morningness type. Cirrhotics with minimal encephalopathy failed to demonstrate good results in neuropsychiatric tests, also seem to have limitations in many activities of every day life, according to SIP questionnaire results. In the absence of neurological signs, these cirrhotics have abnormal EEG findings (50%), and abnormalities in brain MRI (69%). Brain MRI seems to have an important role in the diagnosis of minimal encephalopathy, as such abnormalities are in statistical correlation with biochemical parameters of liver insufficiency, also with overall Child-Pugh score. Cirrhotic patients with minimal encephalopathy have disturbances in many biological parameters, as a result of abnormal circadian rhythms, which are controlled by the biological clock, the SCN of hypothalamus. Abnormal circadian rhythms of pituitary hormones, also disturbances in the 24h cycle of melatonin are recognised in this study. The role of melatonin in the controll of the circadian rhythmicity is major, however as described in this study, abnormalities of melatonin secretion may result in more advanced liver disease. The abnormal endocrinologic pattern of cirrhotics with minimal encephalopathy seems to be different not only regarding to healthy individuals, also to other non hepatopathy patients , as described in this study. Except the role of melatonin in this abnormality, other factors play a key role, such false neurotransmitters, effects on afferent/efferent connections of the SCN, disturbances in the astrocyte function, increased GABA-ergic activity. A critical question for clinicians is whether this endocrinologic abnormality should be considered an early indicator of Hepatic Encephalopathy, and if that happens, how early it appears. We believe that further investigation is needed with re-assessment of the cirrhotic patients in the future. Hepatic encephalopathy, a major complication of liver cirrhosis, is a clinical syndrome characterized by abnormal mental status occuring in patients with severe hepatic insufficiency. The clinical manifestations range from a slightly altered mental status to coma. In the absence of clinical symptoms, but with a number of disturbances in biological parameters, such as sleep and function abnormalities in every day life, the term minimal hepatic encephalopathy is established. A high proportion of cirrhotic patients ranging from 30% to 70% show neuropsychological or neurophysiological abnormalities, although conventional neurological and mental assessment is normal. In this absence of biological correlates, diagnosis of minimal or Subclinical Hepatic Encephalopathy (SHE) relies on psychometric, neurophysiological and recently neuroimaging tests, although the “gold standard” of this clinical diagnosis has not yet been established. Abnormal rhythms of several biological parameters have been described in patients with cirrhosis. The existence of the “biological” clock, the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) of hypothalamus, with its afferent/efferent connections allows the organism to foresee and anticipate the modifications in the external enviroment that occur during the day/night cycle. Current views propose two explanations for the alterations in circadian function seen in chronic liver disease. First, abnormalities of circadian rhythms arise from the effects on the SCN and/or its afferent/efferent connections of neurotoxins implicated in the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy. Second, the impaired hepatic metabolism of melatonin results in elevated morning plasma levels that cause a phase shift of the output from the circadian clock. It is possible that both explanations, that combine the effects of hepatocellular dysfunction and portal-systemic shunting, are responsible for the circadian abnormality in liver disease. The aim of this study was to evaluate cirrhotic patients without evidence of encephalopathy, and as they have been characterized with the term minimal encephalopathy, to describe their clinical status, analyze their chronotypology, and redifine neuropsychiatric abnormalities and abnormal daily activities using psychometric tests, neurophysiologic exams (HCG) and neuroimaging images (brain MRI). Aim also of the study was to analyse the endocrinologic profile of cirrhotics without encephalopathy, trying to correlate any abnormal circadian rhythm of hormones with biological parameters, clinical performances and laboratory tests. Twenty six cirrhotic patients without signs of encephalopathy and a controll group of thirteen patients without hepatopathy, and normal neurological exam, took part in the study. Psychometric status was evaluated using NCT-A and Digit Symbol test, also the Sickness Impact Profile (SIP) analysis was used. The findings of NCT-A and DST studies were a worse performance of cirrhotic subjects in psychomotor speed and attention. A diminished level of daily functioning in patients with minimal HE, reflected by significantly impairments of all SIP categories, was recognised, while non hepatopathy patients did not exhibit such abnormalities. Further analysis of everyday activities using BNSQ and Horne Score tests took place, while an interview of sleep history was performed. Results of these tests showed a chronotypology of Moderate Morningness Type, although non encephalopathic cirrhotics were found to have some particular sleep abnormalities. These were found to be a decreased sleeping time (<6h/night), sleep latency>30 min, and often awakenings during night sleep (>3 episodes/night). Although chronotypology of non hepatopathy patients was the same, Moderate Morningness Type, sleep abnormalities were not described in non cirrhotic group. Sleep history is recognised as a necessary tool for the assessment of early neurological abnormalities, and Evening chronotypology of cirrhotic patients is probably related with more severe liver disease. An awake 16-channel digital EEG was performed on all patients. The abnormal EEG findings were analysed as specific( epileptic form or paroxysmal) and non specific disturbances( theta and delta waves in various combinations). Furthermore, the non specific disturbances were classified as mild, moderate and severe. The EEG analysis demonstrated non specific disturbances in 50% of cirrhotics, while the rest of them had normal EEG recording. In the neuroimaging field, all patients underwent a brain MRI exam. 69% of cirrhotic patients exhibited abnormal signal intensity on T-1 weighted images. The affected sites were globus pallidus, putamen or both. The abnormality consisted of high billateral and symmetrical signal intensities of various extents. These abnormalities, compared to the signal of the adjacent white matter of the brain, were classified into three grades: Grade 0: no alterations, Grade 1: mild, Grade 2: severe. No abnormalities were demonstrated on T2-weighted images. According to a qualitative classification 12 patients were classified as Grade 1, 6 as Grade 2, whereas 8 patients had no alterations in the basal ganglia. None patient of the controll group exhibit any MRI abnormalities. There was a significant correlation between quantitative assessment of signal intensity in brain MRI and severity of EEG abnormalities. Using variant analysis to investigate further this relationship, a significant linear association was found between EEG grading and signal MRI intensity. MRI abnormalities were found in 40% of cirrhotics with normal EEG, suggesting MRI as a more sensitive method of evaluating patients with subclinical hepatic encephalopathy. Brain MRI abnormalities were also correlated with liver biochemistry and Child-Pugh category. In our study, Child score and albumin level were identified as significant predictors of the MRI signal intensity.The level of brain MRI abnormalities was also parallel with deterioration of serum bilirubin and globulins, as significant statistical correlations between these parameters were found. The levels and the circadian rhythmicity of cortizol, the pituitary hormones TSH and prolactin, and melatonin which is excreted by the pineal gland are also analysed in non encephalopathic cirrhotics. The results and the statistical analysis showed a disruption of the 24h cycle for melatonin, prolactin and TSH, regarding to normal levels and circadian rhythm. A different behaviour of each hormone in the 24h cycle regarding to non cirrhotic patients was also recognised. For cortisol the circadian rhythmicity was not affected, while the 24h plasma levels of the hormone were suppressed. Statistical analysis showed no significant correlation between the results of hormones tests and chronotypology. No statistical correlation was detected between levels of melatonin, prolactin and TSH, and the severity of brain MRI abnormalities and abnormal EEG findings. On the contrary, statistical analysis showed a relation between the levels of cortisol and brain MRI abnormalities, between 24h cortisol levels and EEG disturbances, also a correlation between cortisol levels and deterioration of hepatic sufficiency was recognised (Child score>5). Similar, disturbances of melatonin levels were correlated with the degree of liver insufficiency. As a conclusion of this study, cirrhotic patients with minimal encephalopathy have sleep disturbances and a chronotypology described as Moderate Morningness type. Cirrhotics with minimal encephalopathy failed to demonstrate good results in neuropsychiatric tests, also seem to have limitations in many activities of every day life, according to SIP questionnaire results. In the absence of neurological signs, these cirrhotics have abnormal EEG findings (50%), and abnormalities in brain MRI (69%). Brain MRI seems to have an important role in the diagnosis of minimal encephalopathy, as such abnormalities are in statistical correlation with biochemical parameters of liver insufficiency, also with overall Child-Pugh score. Cirrhotic patients with minimal encephalopathy have disturbances in many biological parameters, as a result of abnormal circadian rhythms, which are controlled by the biological clock, the SCN of hypothalamus. Abnormal circadian rhythms of pituitary hormones, also disturbances in the 24h cycle of melatonin are recognised in this study. The role of melatonin in the controll of the circadian rhythmicity is major, however as described in this study, abnormalities of melatonin secretion may result in more advanced liver disease. The abnormal endocrinologic pattern of cirrhotics with minimal encephalopathy seems to be different not only regarding to healthy individuals, also to other non hepatopathy patients , as described in this study. Except the role of melatonin in this abnormality, other factors play a key role, such false neurotransmitters, effects on afferent/efferent connections of the SCN, disturbances in the astrocyte function, increased GABA-ergic activity. A critical question for clinicians is whether this endocrinologic abnormality should be considered an early indicator of Hepatic Encephalopathy, and if that happens, how early it appears. We believe that further investigation is needed with re-assessment of the cirrhotic patients in the future.

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Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and its superactive analogues are currently being used in the treatment of a number of endocrine disorders, such as endometriosis, precocious puberty, infertility and prostatic cancer. Selection of these analogues for clinical use have been previously based on their activities in animal models. This thesis has therefore investigated the binding characteristics of the human GnRH receptor, in comparison to those of the rat receptor, as well as the activities of a number of GnRH analogues for stimulating luteinising hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) secretion from cultured human pituitary cells. The establishment of a human pituitary bioassay system has further made possible the investigation of the direct regulatory roles of GnRH and other neuropeptides in man. To date, such studies in man have been performed in vivo and are thus complicated by the simultaneous interactions of numerous modulators.

A proliferação das células do córtex adrenal é um fenômeno que envolve genes e proteínas relacionados com o controle do ciclo celular. Um dos principais fatores envolvidos na proliferação do córtex adrenal é o ACTH (hormônio corticotrófico), mas outros fatores, como o peptídeo N-terminal da POMC, parece estar envolvido. Para contribuir com o entendimento dos mecanismos envolvidos na resposta proliferativa do córtex adrenal analisamos os efeitos desencadeados por ambos os peptídeos em ratos cujo eixo HPA foi inibido pela dexametasona. Foram utilizados os métodos de incorporação de BrdU; de análise da expressão proteica das ciclinas D, E e p27 através de imunistoquímica e immunoblotting e da expressão de genes relacionados ao controle do ciclo celular utilizando placas de qRT-PCR. Nossos resultados sugerem que ambos os peptídeos induzem efeito proliferativo mas zona-específico no córtex adrenal, e que esse efeito pode ser mediado pelo controle da expressão das ciclinas D2, D3 e E, e pelo inibidor de ciclo celular, a proteína p27kip1. / The proliferation of adrenal cortical cells involves genes and proteins related with the control of the cell cycle. The main factor involved in the proliferation of the adrenal cortex is the ACTH (corticotrophin), but other factor, such as the peptide N-terminal of POMC, seems to be involved. To contribute to the understanding of the mechanisms involved in the proliferative response of the adrenal cortex, we analyzed the effects triggered by both peptides in rats with the HPA axis inhibited by dexamethasone. The methods used were the incorporation of BrdU; analysis of protein cyclins D, E and p27 expression through immunohistochemistry and immunoblotting and expression of genes involved in cell cycle regulation by using qRT-PCR arrays. The results suggest that both peptides induced proliferative effect in adrenal cortex in a zone-specific manner. This effect may be mediated by the control of cyclins D2, D3 and E expression, and also by the cell cycle inhibitor, protein p27KIP1.