RNA polymerase II (Pol II) is the enzyme responsible for the synthesis of all mRNAs in eukaryotic cells. As the central component of the eukaryotic transcription machinery, Pol II is the final target of regulatory pathways. While the role for different Pol II associated proteins, co-activators and general transcription factors (GTFs) in regulation of transcription in response to different stimuli is well studied, a similar role for some subunits of the core Pol II is only now being recognized. The studies reported in this thesis address the role of the fourth largest subunit of Pol II, Rpb4, in transcription and stress response using Saccharomyces cerevisiae as the model system. Rpb4 is closely associated with another smaller subunit, Rpb7 and forms a dissociable complex (Edwards et al., 1991). The rpb4 null mutant is viable but is unable to survive at extreme temperatures (>34ºC and <12ºC) (Woychik and Young, 1989). This mutant has also been shown to be defective in activated transcription and unable to respond properly in several stress conditions (Pillai et al., 2001; Sampath and Sadhale, 2005). In spite of wealth of available information, the exact role of Rpb4 remains poorly understood. In the present work, we have used genetic, molecular and biochemical approaches to understand the role of Rpb4 as described in four different parts below: i) Studies on Genetic and Functional Interactions of Rpb4 with SAGA/TFIID Complex to Confer Promoter- Specific Transcriptional Control To carry out transcription, Pol II has to depend on several general transcription factors, mediators, activators, and co-activators and chromatin remodeling complexes. In the present study, we tried to understand the genetic and functional relationship of Rpb4 with some of the components of transcription machinery, which will provide some insight into the role of Rpb4 during transcription. Our microarray analysis of rpb4∆ strain suggests that down regulated genes show significant overlap with genes regulated by the SAGA complex, a complex functionally related to TFIID and involved in regulation of the stress dependent genes. The analysis of combination of double deletion mutants of either the SAGA complex subunits or the TFIID complex with rpb4∆ showed that both these double mutants are extremely slow growing and show synthetic growth phenotype. Further studies, including microarray analysis of these double mutants and ChIP (chromatin immunoprecipitation) of Rpb4 and SAGA complex, suggested that Rpb4 functions together with SAGA complex to regulate the expression of stress dependent genes. ii) Study of Genome Wide Recruitment of Rpb4 and Evidence for its Role in Transcription Elongation Biochemical studies have shown that Rpb4 associates sub-stoichiometrically with the core RNA polymerase during log phase but whether recruitment of Rpb4 is promoter context dependent or occurs only at specific stage of transcription remains largely unknown. Having discovered that Rpb4 can recruit on both TFIID and SAGA dominated promoters, it was important to study the genome wide role of Rpb4. Using ChIP on chip experiments, we have carried out a systematic assessment of genome wide binding of Rpb4 as compared to the core Pol II subunit, Rpb3. Our analysis showed that Rpb4 is recruited on coding regions of most transcriptionally active genes similar to the core Pol II subunit Rpb3 albeit to a lesser extent. This extent of Rpb4 recruitment increased on the coding regions of long genes pointing towards a role of Rpb4 in transcription elongation of long genes. Further studies showing transcription defect of long and GC rich genes, 6-azauracil sensitivity and defective PUR5 gene expression in rpb4∆ mutant supported the in vivo evidence of the role of Rpb4 in transcription elongation. iii) Genome Wide Expression Profiling and RNA Polymerase II Recruitment in rpb4∆ Mutant in Non-Stress and Stress Conditions Structural studies have suggested a role of Rpb4/Rpb7 sub-complex in recruitment of different factors involved in transcription (Armache et al., 2003; Bushnell and Kornberg, 2003). Though only few studies have supported this aspect of Rpb4/Rpb7 sub-complex, more research needs to be directed to explore this role of Rpb4/Rpb7 sub-complex. To study if Rpb4 has any role in recruitment of Pol II under different growth conditions, we have studied genome wide recruitment of Pol II in the presence and absence of Rpb4 during growth in normal rich medium as well as under stress conditions like heat shock and stationary phase where Rpb4 is shown to be indispensable for survival. Our analysis showed that absence of Rpb4 results in overall reduced recruitment of Pol II in moderate condition but this reduction was more pronounced during heat shock condition. During stationary phase where overall recruitment of Pol II also goes down in wild type cells, absence of Rpb4 did not lead to further decrease in overall recruitment. Interestingly, increased expression levels of many genes in the absence of Rpb4 did not show concomitant increase in the recruitment of Pol II, suggesting that Rpb4 might regulate these genes at a post-transcriptional step. iv) Role of Rpb4 in Pseudohyphal Growth The budding yeast S. cerevisiae can initiate distinct developmental programs depending on the presence of various nutrients. In response to nitrogen starvation, diploid yeast undergoes a dimorphic transition to filamentous pseudohyphal growth, which is regulated through cAMP-PKA and MAP kinase pathways. Previous work from our group has shown that rpb4∆ strain shows predisposed pseudohyphal morphology (Pillai et al., 2003), but how Rpb4 regulates this differentiation program is yet to be established. In the present study, we found that disruption of Rpb4 leads to enhanced pseudohyphal growth, which is independent of nutritional status. We observed that the rpb4∆/ rpb4∆ cells exhibit pseudohyphae even in the absence of a functional MAP kinase and cAMP-PKA pathways. Genome wide expression profile showed that several downstream genes of RAM signaling pathway were down regulated in rpb4∆ cells. Our detailed genetic analysis further supported the hypothesis that down regulation of RAM pathway might be leading to the pseudohyphal morphogenesis in rpb4∆ cells.

En la levadura S. cerevisiae, un incremento de la osmolaridad extracelular activa la vía de Hog1, lo que produce una compleja respuesta adaptativa. Entre las respuestas adaptativas que Hog1 coordina, está un importante cambio en el partón de expresión génica. La tesis presentada se centra en la respuesta a nivel de regulación génica, y en ella se ponen de manifiesto nuevos mecanismos por los cuales Hog1 regula la transcripción para inducir genes necesarios para la adaptación celular en respuesta a estrés osmótico. Este trabajo demuestra que Hog1 controla la iniciación y la elongación de la transcripción, interacciona con la RNA polimerasa elongando, y es reclutado en toda la región codificante de los genes que se inducen por estrés osmótico a traves del 3'UTR. Asimismo, Hog1 recluta el complejo remodelador de cromatina RSC para promover un dramático cambio en el posicionamiento de nucleosomas, permitiendo una correcta inducción de la expresión génica. / In the yeast S.cerevisiae, an increase in extra cellular osmolarity activates the Hog1 Pathway, which produces a very complex adaptive response. Among these adaptive responses coordinated by Hog1, there is an important change in the gene expression pattern. The presented Thesis focuses on the response triggered at the genomic level, showing novel mechanisms by which Hog1 regulates transcription to efficiently and properly induce a subset of genes critical for the cellular adaptation to osmotic stress. This work demonstrates that Hog1 promotes and regulates transcription not only at the initiation level, as was previously described, but it also interacts with the RNA Polymerase while elongating, and travels along the coding regions of genes induced upon osmotic stress through recognition of the 3'UTR. Furthermore, Hog1 recruits a chromatin-remodeling complex known as RSC to promote a dramatic change in nucleosome positioning of target genes, allowing a proper induction of the transcription

In eukaryotes, the first step of interpreting the genetic information is the transcription of DNA into RNA. For protein-coding genes, such transcription is carried out by RNA polymerase II. A special domain of RNA polymerase II, called the C-terminal domain (CTD), functions as a master controller for the transcription process by providing a platform to recruit regulatory proteins to nascent mRNA (Chapter 1-2). The modifications and conformational states of the CTD, termed the 'CTD code', represent a critical regulatory checkpoint for transcription. The CTD, found only in eukaryotes, consists of 26--52 tandem heptapeptide repeats with the consensus sequence, Tyr₁Ser₂Pro₃Thr₄Ser₅Pro₆Ser₇. Phosphorylation of the serines and prolyl isomerization of the prolines represent two major regulatory mechanisms of the CTD. Interestingly, the phosphorylation sites are typically close to prolines, thus the conformation of the adjacent proline could impact the specificity of the corresponding kinases and phosphatases. Understanding how those modifying enzymes recognize and regulate the CTD is important for expanding our knowledge on the transcription regulation and deciphering the 'CTD code'. During my PhD study, I studied the function of CTD phosphatases and prolyl isomerase in the CTD regulation using Scp1, Ssu72 and Pin1 as model regulators. Scp1 and Ssu72 are both Ser5 phosphatases. However, Ssu72 is an essential protein and regulates the global transcription while Scp1 epigenetically silences the expression of specific neuronal genes. Pin1 is a highly conserved phosphorylation-specific prolyl isomerase that recognizes the phospho-Ser/Thr-Pro motif within the CTD as one of its primary substrates in vivo. Among these enzymes, Scp1 is the focal point of this dissertation, as it was studied from different angles, such as enzymatic mechanism (Chapter 3 describes the capture of phospho-aspartyl intermediate of Scp1 as a direct evidence for the proposed two-step mechanism), specific inhibition (Chapter 4 describes the identification and characterization of the first specific inhibitor of Scp1), and its non-active-site contact with the CTD (Chapter 5 describes the structural basis of this contact). These studies are of great importance towards understanding the molecular mechanism of the dephosphorylation process of the CTD by Scp1. / text

Regulation of transcription by Stress Activated Protein Kinases (SAPKs) is an essential aspect for adaptation to extracellular stimuli. In mammals, the activation of the p38 SAPK results in the regulation of gene expression through the direct phosphorylation of several transcription factors. However, how p38 SAPK regulates the proper gene expression program of adaptation to stress as well as the basic mechanisms used by the SAPK remains uncharacterized. The results displayed in this manuscript show that the p38 SAPK plays a central role in the regulation of gene expression upon stress, as up to 80% of the upregulated genes are p38 SAPK dependent. Moreover, we also observed that a specific set of genes were upregulated in response to each specific stimuli, and just a small set of genes were commonly up-regulated by several stresses, which involves mainly transcription factors. In addition, we observed that, to proper regulate gene transcription, the p38 SAPK is recruited to stress-induced promoters via its interaction with transcription factors. Additionally, p38 activity allows the recruitment of RNA polymerase II and the MAPKK MKK6 to stress-responsive promoters. The presence of active p38 SAPK at open reading frames also suggests the involvement of the SAPK in elongation. Altogether, the results showed in this manuscript establish the p38 SAPK as an essential regulator in the transcriptional response to stress, as well as define new roles for p38 in the regulation of transcription in response to stress. / La regulación de la transcripción por las Proteínas Quinasas activadas por Estrés (SAPKs) es un aspecto esencial para la adaptación a los estímulos extracelulares. En mamíferos, la activación de la SAPK p38 da lugar a la regulación de la expresión génica a través de la fosforilación de varios factores de transcripción. Sin embargo, cómo p38 SAPK regula el programa de expresión génica de adaptación al estrés así como los mecanismos utilizados por la SAPK permanece sin caracterizar. Los resultados presentados en este manuscrito muestran que p38 SAPK juega un rol central en la regulación de la expresión génica en respuesta a estrés, ya que hasta el 80% de los genes inducidos son dependientes de p38 SAPK. También observamos que en respuesta a cada tipo de estrés se induce un grupo de genes específicos, y sólo hay una pequeña respuesta de genes comunes a los diferentes tipos de estrés la cual engloba principalmente factores de transcripción. Además, hemos observado que para regular la transcripción, p38 se recluta a los promotores de respuesta a estrés a través de su interacción con factores de transcripción. Asimismo, la actividad de p38 permite el reclutamiento de la RNA Polimerasa II y de la MAPKK MKK6 a los promotores inducidos por estrés. La presencia de p38 activa en las regiones codificantes sugiere su participación durante la elongación. En conjunto, los resultados mostrados en este manuscrito establecen a p38 como un regulador esencial de la transcripción en respuesta a estrés, así como definen nuevas funciones de p38 en la regulación de la transcripción en respuesta a estrés.

Thesis (Ph.D. in Biochemistry) -- University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, 2006. / Typescript. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 135-145). Free to UCD Anschutz Medical Campus. Online version available via ProQuest Digital Dissertations;

Recentemente, tem sido demonstrado que a maioria dos RNAs transcritos em células humanas são RNAs não-codificadores de proteínas (ncRNAs) originados de íntrons ou regiões intergênicas. Em trabalhos anteriores realizados por nosso grupo, foram descritos longos ncRNAs transcritos de regiões intrônicas de genes codificadores e cuja expressão foi correlacionada ao grau de diferenciação de tumores de próstata, apontando para a relevância fisiológica desta classe de transcritos. Apesar de sua abundância, as propriedades, funções e regulação da grande maioria dos ncRNAs ainda não foram elucidadas. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi investigar a biossíntese de ncRNAs intrônicos em células humanas, primordialmente a contribuição da RNA Polimerase II (RNAP II), bem como aspectos de sua regulação. Primeiramente, o modelo de regulação da expressão gênica por hormônio andrógeno foi utilizado para avaliação da participação direta de um fator de transcrição de RNAP II, o Receptor de Andrógeno (AR), na modulação da transcrição de ncRNAs intrônicos. Utilizando-se a técnica de imunoprecipitação da cromatina, foi detectada a ligação do AR ao elemento de resposta a andrógeno (ARE) presente em um possível promotor de um transcrito intrônico antisenso (derivado do locus Myo5A), cuja expressão é aumentada em células da linhagem LNCaP tratadas com o hormônio. A ligação ao ARE foi induzida pelo tratamento, sugerindo que o efeito do andrógeno na expressão do ncRNA é mediado pelo AR. Em uma segunda abordagem, o efeito da inibição da transcrição por RNAP II com &#945;-amanitina por 24 h em células LNCaP foi avaliado com o uso de microarranjos de oligonucleotídeos representando transcritos total ou parcialmente intrônicos, além de éxons de genes codificadores. A expressão de menos de 20 % dos transcritos intrônicos foi afetada, fração significativamente menor que a observada para os transcritos exônicos (40 %). Ainda que a maioria dos ncRNAs intrônicos diferencialmente expressos tenha sua abundância diminuída, interessantemente, 13 a 16 % foram aumentados, contrastando com aproximadamente 2 a 3 % de exônicos que aumentaram. Os resultados obtidos neste trabalho indicam que a RNAP II atua na transcrição de ncRNAs intrônicos, mas que uma fração considerável pode ser transcrita por outra RNA Polimerase. / It has been recently shown that the bulk of the transcription in human cells is comprised of non-protein-coding RNAs (or noncoding RNAs - ncRNAs) transcribed from introns and intergenic regions of the genome. Previous work from our group has demonstrated that expression of long intronic ncRNAs can be correlated to the degree of prostate tumor differentiation, underscoring the physiological relevance of these transcripts. However, the properties, functions, and regulation of this huge population of ncRNAs remain largely unknown. The present work aimed to investigate the biosynthesis of intronic ncRNAs and aspects of its regulation in human cells, focusing on the contribution of RNA Polymerase II (RNAP II). Initially, the model of regulation of gene expression by androgen hormone was used in order to evaluate the participation of the RNAP II transcription factor Androgen Receptor (AR) in the transcriptional regulation of intronic ncRNAs. Chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments revealed the binding of the AR in an androgen response element (ARE) present in a putative promoter driving the expression of an antisense intronic transcript in Myo5A locus in LNCaP cells. The interaction occurred in an androgen-inducible fashion, along with the up-regulation of the transcript, suggesting that hormone activation occurred in a direct manner mediated by the AR. In a different approach, the effect of RNAP II inhibition with &#945;-amanitin for 24 h in LNCaP cells was analyzed using an oligoarray representing totally and partially intronic transcripts, as well as exons of proteincoding genes. The expression of less than 20 % of the intronic transcripts was affected by the treatment, contrasting to a significantly higher fraction observed for exonic messages (40 %). Moreover, most differentially expressed intronic transcripts were down-regulated, but strikingly 13 to 16 % were up-regulated in cells with blocked RNAP II, while this fraction for exonic transcripts was about 2 %. The results described here demonstrate that RNAP II in fact plays a role in intronic transcription in human cells, but also highlight that another transcriptional system may account for the biogenesis of a fraction of intronic ncRNAs.

Abstract During DNA replication cells accurately copy their DNA to transfer the genetic information to daughter cells. DNA polymerases synthesise the new DNA strand using the old strand as a template. Other functions of DNA polymerases are recombination linked and DNA iamage repair linked DNA synthesis, regulation of replication complex formation and regulation of transcription – a process in which the genetic information is transformed into an RNA sequence needed to guide protein synthesis. In this study, the TopBP1 protein was shown to associate with DNA polymerase epsilon. TopBP1 contains eight BRCT domains mediating interactions between phosphorylated proteins and is a human homolog of bakers yeast Dpb11 and fission yeast Cut5. These yeast proteins act on DNA replication and cell cycle arrest after DNA damage. TopBP1 was found to be phosphorylated and expressed in elevated amounts during S phase suggesting an involvement in DNA replication. This was directly demonstrated by DNA synthesis inhibition by a competing TopBP1 fragment and by an antibody targeted to block TopBP1. Ultraviolet irradiation damages DNA and decreases the amount of TopBP1 in the nucleus. The transcription factor Miz-1 was found to associate with TopBP1 and was released from this interaction after UV damage. Free Miz-1 activated the expression of the cell cycle arresting proteins p15 and p21 cooperatively with other transcription factors and allowed extra time for DNA damage repair. TopBP1 was also found to interact with the breast cancer susceptibility protein 1 and both proteins localised together to arrested DNA synthesis apparatuses. The interaction of TopBP1 with the damage recognition and processing protein Rad9 is still further evidence of a link between TopBP1 and DNA damage. DNA polymerase epsilon forms a complex with Cdc45, a protein involved in DNA replication initiation and elongation. This complex does not interact with Cdc45 complexed with DNA polymerase delta, suggesting that these complexes synthesise DNA independently of each other. Our results are in agreement with the view that polymerase epsilon synthesises the first strand of DNA and polymerase delta the other. Finally,DNA polymerase epsilon binds to the RNA synthesising form of RNA polymerase II and nascent transcripts. The physiological meaning of this interaction needs to be determined.

RNA polymerase II (Pol II) is the enzyme responsible for the synthesis of all mRNAs in eukaryotic cells. As the central component of the eukaryotic transcription machinery, Pol II is the final target of transcription regulatory pathways. While the role for different Pol II associated proteins, co-activators and general transcription factors (GTFs) in regulation of transcription in response to different stimuli is well studied, a similar role for some subunits of the core Pol II is only now being recognized. The studies reported in this thesis address the role of the fourth largest subunit of Pol II, Rpb4, in transcription and stress response using Saccharomyces cerevisiae as the model system. Rpb4 is closely associated with another smaller subunit, Rpb7 and forms a dissociable complex (Edwards et al. 1991). The rpb4 null mutant is viable but is unable to survive at extreme temperatures (>34ºC and <12ºC) (Woychik and Young, 1989). This mutant has also been shown to be defective in activated transcription and unable to respond adequately to several stress conditions (Pillai et al. 2001; Sampath and Sadhale, 2005). In spite of wealth of available information, the exact role of Rpb4 in transcription process remains poorly understood. In the present work, we have used genetic, molecular and biochemical approaches to understand the role of Rpb4 as described in three different parts below: I. Role of Rpb4 in various pathways related to Transcription Elongation The genome-wide recruitment study of RNA pol II in presence and absence of Rpb4 has indicated role of Rpb4 in transcription elongation (Verma-Gaur et al. 2008). However, a recent proteomics based report has argued against it (Mosley et al. 2013). To address this conflict and understand Rpb4 functions, we monitored recruitment of RNA pol II on a few individual long genes in wild type and rpb4∆ cells. It was observed that RNA pol II recruitment on genes with longer coding regions is not significantly affected in rpb4∆ as compared to wild type thus ruling out role of Rpb4 in transcription elongation of these genes. However, our genetic interaction studies have shown a strong interaction (synthetic lethality) between RPB4 and the PAF1 and SPT4 genes, the products of which code for well-known transcription elongation factors. The studies based on Rpb4 overexpression in mutants for elongation factors, 6-Azauracil sensitivity of cells, effect of Dst1 overexpression in rpb4∆ cells and mitotic recombination rate in rpb4∆ cells have indicated functional interactions of Rpb4 with many of the transcription elongation factors. II. Studies on Genetic and Functional Interactions of Rpb4 with SAGA Complex in Promoter- Specific Transcription Initiation To carry out transcription, RNA pol II depends on several general transcription factors, mediators, activators, co-activators and chromatin remodeling complexes. In the present study, we explored the genetic and functional relationships between Rpb4 and the SAGA complex of transcription machinery, to gain some insight on the role of Rpb4 during transcription. Our chromatin immunoprecipitation data suggest that RNA pol II does not associate with promoters of heat shock genes during transcription activation of these heat stress induced genes in absence of Rpb4. SAGA coactivator complex is required for RNA pol II recruitment and transcription activation of these genes (Zanton and Pugh, 2004). However, recruitment of the SAGA complex at promoters of these heat shock genes was not affected in rpb4∆ cells after heat stress. Our genetic interaction analysis between RPB4 and components of SAGA complex (spt20∆) showed synthetic lethality indicating that fully functional Rpb4 and SAGA complex are required for cellular functions in the absence of heat stress and the simultaneous deletion of factors in the two complexes leads to cell death. III. Role of Rpb4 in phosphorylation cycles of Rpb1-CTD The C-Terminal Domain (CTD) of Rpb1 protein of RNA pol II undergoes several rounds of phosphorylation cycles at Ser-2 and Ser-5 residues on its heptad repeats during transcription. These phosphorylation marks are to be erased before the start of next round of transcription. Using protein pull down assay, we observed that hyperphosphorylated form of Rpb1 is reduced in rpb4∆ as compared to that seen in wild type cells among the free RNA pol II molecules. The level of Rpb2 protein was unaffected in both wild type and rpb4∆. These preliminary data hints at role of Rpb4 in the regulation of Rpb1 phosphorylation.

Les mécanismes de régulation de l’expression génétique sont essentiels pour l’adaptation du comportement cellulaire face à son environnement (différenciation, développement, réponse à un stimulus). Les études moléculaires décrivent une grande diversité de facteurs impliqués dans ce phénomène (TFs, marques épigénétiques, nucléosomes) et plusieurs niveaux de régulation (initiation, élongation, épissage, maturation) qui expliquent la complexité du transcriptome cellulaire. Durant ma thèse, nous nous sommes intéressés aux processus de régulation de la transcription en nous appuyant sur le modèle de la différenciation lymphocytaire murine. Nos études décrivent le recrutement des GTFs et une activité transcriptionnelle caractéristique aux promoteurs des gènes et sur les enhancers. Nous montrons également que les ilots CpG (CGIs) sont des éléments régulateurs majeurs chez les mammifères et qu’ils contribuent de manière transcription-indépendante à la déplétion nucléosomale observée aux promoteurs de certains gènes. Nos collaborations nous ont également permis d’aborder des sujets relatifs à l’élongation de la transcription, l’épissage alternatif, ou les combinatoires de PTMs que peuvent exhiber le CTD de l’ARN Pol II et les queues d’histones. Dans un contexte de transition de l’ère pré-génomique vers des approches expérimentales pangénomiques (s’appuyant notamment sur les technologies de séquençage haut débit), une proportion importante de ma période doctorale fut consacrée au développement d’outils bioinformatiques pour le traitement et les analyses de données expérimentales, issues de ChIP-on-chip puis de HTS (ChIP-Seq, MNase-Seq, RNA-Seq). / Mechanisms underlying the regulation of genetic expression are crucial for cell maintenance and adaptation to environment (differentiation, development...). Molecular approaches reveal a great diversity of factors involved in this process (TFs, epigenetics, nucleosomes) and several layers of regulation (transcription initiation, elongation, splicing, maturation) which contribute to the observed transcriptome complexity. During my thesis, we studied the mechanisms of transcription regulation in mammals during lymphocyte differentiation. Briefly, we described the recruitment of GTFs and the transcriptional activity occurring on promoters and enhancers. We also reveal that CpG islands (CGIs) are major regulator elements in mammals, which contribute to nucleosome depletion in a transcription-independent manner on a significant amount of promoters. Together with our collaborators, we also studied the mechanisms of transcription elongation, alternative splicing, or the complex combinatorial patterns of PTMs that can be set on the CTD of RNA Polymerase II and on histone tails. In the context of transition from pre-genomic studies to genome-wide experiments, an important part of my work consisted in the development of bioinformatics tools for the processing and analysis of experimental datasets from ChIP-on-chip, and HTS technologies (ChIP-Seq, MNase-Seq, RNA-Seq).

Transcription by RNA polymerase II is a highly regulated process requiring a number of general and promoter specific transcription factors. Although many of the factors involved in the transcription reaction are known, exactly how they function to stimulate or repress transcription is not well understood. Central to understanding gene regulation is understanding the mechanism by which promoter specific transcription activators (activators) stimulate transcription. A group of factors called coactivators have been shown to be required for activator function in vitro. The best characterized coactivators to date are members of the TFIID complex. TFIID is a multisubunit complex composed of the TATA box binding protein (TBP) and 8-12 TBP associated factors (TAFIIs). Results from numerous in vitro experiments indicate that TAFIIs function by binding to activators and forming a bridge between the activator and the basal transcription machinery. In order to gain insight into the mechanism by which activators stimulate transcription, we chose to analyze the in vivo function of TAFIIs, their proposed targets. Results from the genetic disruption of a number of TAFIIs in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae showed that most are encoded by essential genes. In order to study their function, temperature-sensitive and conditional alleles were constructed. Cells depleted of individual TAFIIs by either of these two methods displayed no defect in global transcription activation. Inactivation of yTAFII17, however, resulted in a promoter specific defect. In addition, inactivation of yTAFII145, yTAFII90, or TSM1, resulted in an inability of cells to progress through the cell-cycle. In an attempt to identify genes whose expression required yTAFII90, we performed subtractive hybridization on strains containing wild-type and temperature-sensitive alleles. Although this technique successfully identified genes differentially expressed in the two strains, it failed to identify genes whose expression required yTAFII90. These results indicate that TAFIIs are not the obligatory targets of activators, and that other factors must provide this role in vivo. Furthermore, that many of TAFIIs are required for cell-cycle progression.