A polymer brush is formed by densely grafting the chain ends of polymers onto a surface. This tethering of the long macromolecules has considerable influence on the surface properties, which can be additionally modified by changing the environmental conditions. In this context it is of special interest to understand and control the behavior of the grafted layer and to create surfaces that display a desired response to external stimulation. The present work studies densely grafted polymer brushes and the effects that such an environment imposes on an individual chain molecule in the grafted layer. For this purpose we developed a new self-consistent field approach to describe mixtures of heterogeneous chains comprised of differently sized hard spheres. Applying this method to the case of polymer brushes we consider a fraction of grafted molecules to be different from the majority brush chains. The modification of these chains includes a variation in the degree of polymerization, a different solvent selectivity behavior and a variable size of the free end-monomer. Due to the computational efficiency of the present approach, as compared for example to direct simulation methods, we can study the conformations of the modified 'guest' chains systematically in dependence of the relevant parameters. With respect to brush profile and the distribution of the free chain ends the new method shows very good quantitative agreement with corresponding simulation results. We also confirm the observation that these 'guest' chains can undergo a conformational transition depending on the type of modification and the solvent quality. For the cases studied in the present work we analyze the conditions to achieve a most sensitive behavior of this conformational switching. In addition, an analytical model is proposed to describe this effect. We compare its predictions to the numerical results and find good agreement.

Stimuli-responsive polymers have aroused enormous interest in fundamental and applied polymer research in the last decades as they exhibit a spontaneous, defined, and reversible adaptation of their physicochemical properties towards environmental conditions. Their switching behavior can be triggered by external physical, chemical or biological stimuli, such as a change in temperature, pH value or the presence of certain enzymes. These materials, often referred to as 'smart' polymers, offer a huge potential for novel (bio-medical) sensors, actuators like artificial muscles and flexible robotics, drug-delivery systems, tissue engineering, and switchable catalysts. For almost all of these applications, responsive polymer chains need to be attached to interfaces such as particles or flat substrates or assembled into constrained architectures, like branched structures, micelles, or cross-linked networks. Although there are strong indications that the assembly of responsive polymers largely impacts their adaptiveness, the underlying structure–property relationships are still poorly understood. Besides the challenge of synthesizing constrained polymeric architectures precisely, the analytical characterization of their responsiveness is challenging too. Despite these obstacles, fundamental scientific characterization is an important tool for making smart polymers accessible for real-life applications. To contribute to this, the overarching objective of this work is to synthesize, characterize, adapt, and control the switching characteristics of a multi-responsive polymeric coating. The responsive polyelectrolyte, poly(N,N-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate) (PDMAEMA), is covalently anchored to flat silicon substrates or gold nanoparticles via three newly developed, distinct grafting-to approaches in a controlled manner. In particular, the thermo-responsive behavior of the nanometer-thick polymer layer in aqueous solutions is being investigated using complementary in-situ techniques such as spectroscopic ellipsometry, attenuated total reflection Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR spectroscopy) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Herein, the polymer coating reveals an extraordinary responsiveness, exhibiting two distinct modes of thermo-responses, namely a lower critical solution temperature (LCST) and a multivalent ion induced upper critical solution temperature (UCST). The temperature-dependent switching characteristics of the coating, in terms of switching amplitude, temperature, and sharpness, can be tailored by secondary triggers, such as a change in the pH value, ionic strength, or type of counterions present. In addition to characterizing the interactions between the polymer layer and the aqueous environment on a molecular level, the remarkable impact of thermo-responsiveness on the surface patterning of the coating is exposed. A nanostructured surface of pinned PDMAEMA micelles of tunable size during the UCST transition is opposing a homogenous surface detected both below and above the LCST. Furthermore, the synthetic control over the grafting density of the polymer chains reveals the ambiguous influence of steric constraint on both the LCST and induced UCST transition of the coating for the first time. In summary, the in-depth physicochemical characterization of a multi-responsive polymer coating in this work marks a comprehensive contribution to fundamental advances in constrained responsive polymers and their future applications in tailoring surface properties. / Stimuli-responsive Polymere haben in den letzten Jahrzehnten ein enormes Interesse in der Grundlagen- und angewandten Polymerforschung geweckt, da sie eine spontane, definierte und reversible Anpassung ihrer physikalisch-chemischen Eigenschaften an Umweltbedingungen aufweisen. Ihr Schaltverhalten kann dabei sowohl durch externe physikalische, chemische oder biologische Reize wie zum Beispiel eine Änderung der Temperatur, des pH-Wertes bzw. der Präsenz bestimmter Enzyme, ausgelöst werden. Diese oft als 'intelligente' Polymere bezeichneten Materialien bieten ein großes Potenzial für neuartige (biomedizinische) Sensoren, Aktoren wie künstliche Muskeln und flexible Roboter, Systeme zur Abgabe von Medikamenten, Gewebezüchtung sowie schaltbare Katalysatoren. Für fast alle diese Anwendungen müssen responsive Polymerketten an Grenzflächen wie (Nano-)Partikel oder flache Substrate gebunden bzw. zu sterisch anspruchsvollen Architekturen wie verzweigten Strukturen, polymeren Mizellen oder Netzwerken zusammengefügt werden. Obwohl es deutliche Hinweise darauf gibt, dass die Assemblierung von responsiven Polymeren deren Adaptivität signifikant beeinflusst, sind die zugrunde liegenden Struktur-Eigenschafts-Beziehungen noch wenig bekannt. Neben den hohen Anforderungen der Synthese sterisch eingeschränkter Polymerarchitekturen, ist auch die analytische Charakterisierung ihrer Responsivität anspruchsvoll. Trotz dieser Herausforderungen ist gerade diese grundlegende wissenschaftliche Charakterisierung ein wichtiges Instrument, um intelligente Polymere für reale Anwendungen zugänglich zu machen. Um einen Beitrag dafür zu leisten, ist das übergeordnete Ziel dieser Arbeit die Synthese, Charakterisierung, Anpassung und Regulierung der Schalteigenschaften einer multi-responsiven Polymerbeschichtung. Der responsive Polyelektrolyt, Poly(N,N-dimethylaminoethylmethacrylat) (PDMAEMA), wird über drei neu entwickelte, unterschiedliche Pfropfansätze kontrolliert auf flachen Siliziumsubstraten oder Goldnanopartikeln kovalent verankert. Insbesondere das thermo-responsive Verhalten dieser nur wenigen nanometerdicken Beschichtung wird in wässrigen Lösungen mit komplementären in-situ Techniken wie der spektroskopischen Ellipsometrie, ATR-FTIR (attenuated total reflection Fourier-transform infrared) Spektroskopie sowie AFM (atomic force microscopy) analytisch untersucht. Hierbei zeigt die entwickelte Polymerbeschichtung eine außergewöhnliche Adaptivität bestehend aus zwei unterschiedlichen Arten der Thermoresponsivität, namentlich einer unteren kritischen Entmischungstemperatur (lower critical solution temperature, LCST) und einer durch multivalente Ionen induzierten oberen kritischen Entmischungstemperatur (upper critical solution temperture, UCST). Die Schalteigenschaften der Beschichtung in Bezug auf Schaltamplitude, -temperatur, und Schärfe des Übergangs können durch sekundäre Stimuli, wie eine Änderung des pH-Werts, der Ionenstärke oder der Art der vorhandenen Gegenionen, maßgeschneidert werden. Neben der Charakterisierung der molekularen Wechselwirkungen zwischen Polymerschicht und wässriger Umgebung, wird auch der bemerkenswerte Einfluss der Thermoresponsivität auf die Oberflächenstrukturierung der Beschichtung gezeigt. Eine Nanostrukturierung aus gepinnten PDMAEMA-Mizellen mit einstellbarer Größe während des UCST-Übergangs steht einer homogenen Oberfläche gegenüber, die sowohl unterhalb als auch oberhalb der LCST festgestellt wird. Darüber hinaus zeigt die synthetische Kontrolle der Pfropfdichte der Polymerketten erstmals den ambivalenten Einfluss sterischer Restriktionen sowohl auf den LCST als auch auf den induzierten UCST-Übergang der Beschichtung. Zusammenfassend leistet die tiefgründige physiko-chemische Charakterisierung einer multi-responsiven Polymerbeschichtung in dieser Arbeit einen umfangreichen Beitrag zum grundlegenden Verständnis gepfropfter, responsiver Polymere und ihren künftigen Anwendungen bei der gezielten Anpassung von Oberflächeneigenschaften.

We present a mean field model for a mixture of AB diblock-copolymers and A-block selective nanoparticles confined between two identical non-selective walls. A horizontally symmetric lamellar structure of the nanocomposite is considered where nanoparticles are allowed to segregate between the polymer–wall interfaces. For a fixed value of wall separation, we study changes in the free energy as a function of the number of lamellar layers and the amount of nanoparticle uptake in the A-phase denoted by y = ϕx with 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 for a given value of ϕ, where ϕ is the overall nanoparticle volume fraction. The absorption isotherm for nanoparticle uptake in the A-phase as a function of ϕ shows saturation beyond a threshold value ϕs, and the optimal value of uptake y increases with increasing strength of monomer–nanoparticle attractive interaction. Increasing ϕ above ϕs produces a decrease in the optimal number of lamellar layers which is related to a jump-like transition of the chain extension. The effect of varying film thickness is also studied. By considering A-block selective walls we also investigated a wetting transition of the copolymer film and found the transition to be discontinuous. A corresponding phase diagram is constructed. / Dieser Beitrag ist mit Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.

Adhesion between different objects is happening everywhere. Without it, simple procedures like walking or holding something in a hand or attaching a postage stamp would be impossible. The life itself depends on adhesion on all levels, starting from the interactions between the living cells. Adhesion between two substrates is a complex phenomenon, which at present is still not well understood. There are several factors determining the strength of adhesion: (i) molecular interactions at interface, (ii) mechanical properties of adhesive, and (iii) area of contact between adhesive and probing surface. Two surfaces are tacky when they possess the right balance between these factors. Controlling the adhesion of materials is important in many fields ranging from industrial purposes to biomedical applications and everyday usage. There is a demand for “smart” materials with integrated functionalities that make them responsive, switchable, biocompatible, anti-bacterial, more energy efficient, or autonomous. In particular, materials for such cutting-edge applications like cell culture, drug delivery, tissue engineering, biosensors, anti/biofouling, microfluidics, climbing robots, sport equipment and many others require adjustable/tuneable adhesive properties. Many efforts were directed towards fabrication of materials with either weak or strong adhesion depending on the field of application. However, design of “smart” surfaces with reversibly switchable/controllable adhesion is still a highly challenging task. Therefore, the thesis aims on design of smart polymeric materials with responsive / adaptive adhesion properties. For this, fabrication and investigation of two types of switchable polymer layers based on stimuli-responsive polymer brushes will be performed. The first group is dealing with thermoresponsive polymer brushes: poly-(N-isopropylacrylamide) and two types of biocompatible polyethylene glycol-based systems. These polymer layers undergo phase transition below and above LCST between hydrophilic and hydrophobic states. The second part of the work is related to solvent-responsive comb-like and block copolymer brushes consisted of hydrophilic PEG and hydrophobic PDMS biocompatible and biodegradable polymers.

A polymer brush is formed by densely grafting the chain ends of polymers onto a surface. This tethering of the long macromolecules has considerable influence on the surface properties, which can be additionally modified by changing the environmental conditions. In this context it is of special interest to understand and control the behavior of the grafted layer and to create surfaces that display a desired response to external stimulation. The present work studies densely grafted polymer brushes and the effects that such an environment imposes on an individual chain molecule in the grafted layer. For this purpose we developed a new self-consistent field approach to describe mixtures of heterogeneous chains comprised of differently sized hard spheres. Applying this method to the case of polymer brushes we consider a fraction of grafted molecules to be different from the majority brush chains. The modification of these chains includes a variation in the degree of polymerization, a different solvent selectivity behavior and a variable size of the free end-monomer. Due to the computational efficiency of the present approach, as compared for example to direct simulation methods, we can study the conformations of the modified 'guest' chains systematically in dependence of the relevant parameters. With respect to brush profile and the distribution of the free chain ends the new method shows very good quantitative agreement with corresponding simulation results. We also confirm the observation that these 'guest' chains can undergo a conformational transition depending on the type of modification and the solvent quality. For the cases studied in the present work we analyze the conditions to achieve a most sensitive behavior of this conformational switching. In addition, an analytical model is proposed to describe this effect. We compare its predictions to the numerical results and find good agreement.

We present a mean field model for a mixture of AB diblock-copolymers and A-block selective nanoparticles confined between two identical non-selective walls. A horizontally symmetric lamellar structure of the nanocomposite is considered where nanoparticles are allowed to segregate between the polymer–wall interfaces. For a fixed value of wall separation, we study changes in the free energy as a function of the number of lamellar layers and the amount of nanoparticle uptake in the A-phase denoted by y = ϕx with 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 for a given value of ϕ, where ϕ is the overall nanoparticle volume fraction. The absorption isotherm for nanoparticle uptake in the A-phase as a function of ϕ shows saturation beyond a threshold value ϕs, and the optimal value of uptake y increases with increasing strength of monomer–nanoparticle attractive interaction. Increasing ϕ above ϕs produces a decrease in the optimal number of lamellar layers which is related to a jump-like transition of the chain extension. The effect of varying film thickness is also studied. By considering A-block selective walls we also investigated a wetting transition of the copolymer film and found the transition to be discontinuous. A corresponding phase diagram is constructed. / Dieser Beitrag ist mit Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.

Adhesion between different objects is happening everywhere. Without it, simple procedures like walking or holding something in a hand or attaching a postage stamp would be impossible. The life itself depends on adhesion on all levels, starting from the interactions between the living cells. Adhesion between two substrates is a complex phenomenon, which at present is still not well understood. There are several factors determining the strength of adhesion: (i) molecular interactions at interface, (ii) mechanical properties of adhesive, and (iii) area of contact between adhesive and probing surface. Two surfaces are tacky when they possess the right balance between these factors. Controlling the adhesion of materials is important in many fields ranging from industrial purposes to biomedical applications and everyday usage. There is a demand for “smart” materials with integrated functionalities that make them responsive, switchable, biocompatible, anti-bacterial, more energy efficient, or autonomous. In particular, materials for such cutting-edge applications like cell culture, drug delivery, tissue engineering, biosensors, anti/biofouling, microfluidics, climbing robots, sport equipment and many others require adjustable/tuneable adhesive properties. Many efforts were directed towards fabrication of materials with either weak or strong adhesion depending on the field of application. However, design of “smart” surfaces with reversibly switchable/controllable adhesion is still a highly challenging task. Therefore, the thesis aims on design of smart polymeric materials with responsive / adaptive adhesion properties. For this, fabrication and investigation of two types of switchable polymer layers based on stimuli-responsive polymer brushes will be performed. The first group is dealing with thermoresponsive polymer brushes: poly-(N-isopropylacrylamide) and two types of biocompatible polyethylene glycol-based systems. These polymer layers undergo phase transition below and above LCST between hydrophilic and hydrophobic states. The second part of the work is related to solvent-responsive comb-like and block copolymer brushes consisted of hydrophilic PEG and hydrophobic PDMS biocompatible and biodegradable polymers.

Verankerte Polymere können die Funktionalität einer Oberfläche beeinflussen. Der Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit liegt auf der Untersuchung von Polymerbürsten aus Polyacrylsäure (PAA) und Poly(N,N-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylat) (PDMAEMA). Auf Oberflächen, die mit PAA Bürsten beschichtet sind, können Proteine im nativen Zustand immobilisiert werden. Für PDMAEMA ist eine Reaktion auf externe Reize bekannt. So kann dessen untere kritische Lösungstemperatur (LCST) zur Einstellung der Hydrophobizität von Oberflächen verwendet werden. Erstmalig im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde untersucht, wie sich hydrostatischer Druck von bis zu 1000 bar auf die Funktionalität der verwendeten Polymerbürsten auswirkt. Aus Diblock-Kopolymeren wurden Langmuir-Filme unterschiedlicher Ankerdichte mit der Langmuir-Schäfer Technik auf feste Substrate übertragen. Die Funktionalität der PAA Bürsten wurde vor und nach der Adsorption von Rinderserumalbumin (BSA) in gepufferter D2O-Lösung mit Hilfe der Neutronenreflektometrie (NR) bei 1 bar und 900 bar an der fest-flüssig Grenzfläche untersucht. Es wurden Volumenfraktionsprofile der PAA Bürste und adsorbierten BSA extrahiert, woraus sich eine lineare Abhängigkeit zwischen Ankerdichte und Menge an adsorbiertem Protein feststellen ließ. Erhöhung des hydrostatischen Druckes auf 900 bar veränderte weder die PAA Volumenprofile noch die Immobilisierung von BSA. Die PDMAEMA Bürsten wurden mittels NR bei Temperaturen von 20-60 °C und Drücken von 1-1000 bar untersucht. Zur Analyse der Daten wurde ein neuartiges Dichteprofil-Modell verwendet. Temperaturerhöhung führt zur stetigen Abnahme der Bürstendicke. Dies lässt sich durch den LCST induzierten Phasenübergang der Polymere vom hydrophilen in einen hydrophoben Zustand erklären. Es wurde gefunden, dass eine Erhöhung des hydrostatischen Druckes diesem Prozess entgegenwirkt. Strukturänderungen der Polymerbürsten bei Erhöhung der Temperatur um 10 K ließen sich durch Erhöhung des Druckes um 1000 bar rückgängig machen. / The functionality of an interface can be modified by polymer brushes. The focus of this work is on brushes of either polyacrylic acid (PAA) or poly(N,N-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate) (PDMAEMA). PAA brushes provide a soft interface that prevents the denaturation of adsorbed proteins. PDMAEMA is known to respond to external stimuli. The lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of PDMAEMA can be used to tune the hydrophobicity of the interface with temperature. For the first time, the effect of elevated hydrostatic pressure, up to 1000 bar, on the functionality of these systems is investigated. Planar PAA and PDMAEMA brushes are prepared from precursor diblock copolymer Langmuir layers with varied grafting density utilizing the Langmuir-Schäfer transfer technique. For solvent-swollen PAA brushes, neutron reflectivity (NR) measurements are conducted at the solid-liquid interface after incubation in buffered D2O and after the adsorption of bovine serum albumin (BSA) from the aqueous liquid phase at 1 bar and 900 bar. Detailed volume fraction profiles of the PAA brush and adsorbed BSA proteins are extracted. The amount of adsorbed BSA is found to scale linearly with grafting density. An elevated hydrostatic pressure of 900 bar is found to have no impact on the structure of the PAA brush and its capability to bind BSA proteins. The PDMAEMA brushes are investigated by NR at the solid-liquid interface in a temperature range of 20 to 60 °C for hydrostatic pressures from 1 to 1000 bar. A novel theoretical model of the brush density profile is used to fit the experimental NR data. Increasing the temperature causes a continuous decrease of the polymer brush thickness due to a hydrophobic coil to globule transition of the polymer chains when crossing the LCST. Hydrostatic pressure is found to act antagonistic to temperature. The hydrophobic collapse of the PDMAEMA brush caused by a temperature increase of 10 K is counterbalanced by a pressure increase of 1000 bar.

Switching of surface composition and morphology of binary polymer brushes in response to changes in solvent selectivity, heating above glass transition temperatures, and contact with a rubbery stamp was studied. The binary brushes: polystyrene/poly(2-vinyl pyridine) (PS/P2VP), poly(styrene-co-2,3,4,5,6-pentafluorostyrene)/poly(methyl (meth)acrylate) (PSF/P(M)MA), and PS/PMMA were synthesized via two-step surface-initiated radical polymerization. Wetting experiments show that switching of brushes? surface composition upon exposure to solvents of various thermodynamic quality occurs faster than in 6 s. It takes longer time (5-10 min), if rate of solvent diffusion into the brush film is low. Discontinuous switching of surface composition of binary brushes is found upon exposure to binary solvents with gradually changed selectivity. X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) shows quantitatively that the top brush layer (1) is dominated by respective favourite polymers after exposure to solvents of opposite selectivity and (2) comprises both brush constituents in almost symmetric ratio after exposure to non-selective solvents. Morphologies of binary brushes obtained after exposure to the solvents were studied with Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). Local top layer composition was sensed with X-ray Photoemission Electron Microscopy (XPEEM). The morphologies are relevant to the particular solvents, reproducible, and independent on previous solvents. Phase segregation beneath the brush top layers was visualized with plasma etching. Qualitative agreement of the experimentally observed morphologies and predicted with self-consistent field theory is found. Enrichment of a binary brush top layer with the polymer providing lower surface energy takes place after annealing. Perpendicular segregation of binary brush constituents was sensed with XPEEM on perpendicular walls of imprinted elevations after wet microcontact printing.

Here, we report on a new temperature responsive polymer brush system with a terminal “click” functionality. Bifunctionalized poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNiPAAm) with distinct functional end groups was synthesized by atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) and grafted to a modified silicon substrate. The presence of the active terminal alkyne functionality is validated using an azide-modified rhodamine B (N3-RhB) via copper(I) catalyzed alkyne–azide cycloaddition (CuAAC). The optical properties and swelling dynamics of an N3-RhB modified PNiPAAm brush are analyzed in dry state and in situ by VIS-spectroscopic ellipsometry (SE). The best-fit results are obtained using a Gaussian oscillator model and are confirmed by UV/VIS-spectroscopy. We observed evidence of interactions between the aromatic residues of the dye and the PNiPAAm amide groups, which significantly affect the swelling behavior of the modified polymer brush. / Dieser Beitrag ist mit Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.