Orientador: Júlio Borges de Souza / Resumo: Este trabalho apresenta uma avaliação dos aspectos da instalação de sistemas de geração distribuída fotovoltaica (GDFV) em unidades consumidoras sujeitas à cobrança de reativos no Brasil. A avaliação dos possíveis impactos técnicos e financeiro é realizada sob o alicerce da legislação e normativas aplicáveis. São abordados os modos de medição, sistema tarifário aplicado à unidade em estudo, bem como um comparativo com outros tipos de unidades consumidoras com geração distribuída (GD). São realizadas projeções de funcionamento em condições definidas, faz-se uso do equacionamento definido pela legislação e normas vigentes. Também é realizado um estudo de caso em uma unidade consumidora real. Como resultado apresentam-se gráficos que ilustram o comportamento da curva de geração fotovoltaica, consumo demandado, consumo medido, bem como o comportamento do fator de potência em unidades com GDFV instalada. Isto viabiliza a aferição de eventuais pontos positivos e negativos da instalação de GD nesse tipo de unidade consumidora. No estudo de caso também são apresentadas, em forma de tabela, os valores e percentuais de economia da unidade, comparando com o período sem GDFV. Por fim, são avaliados os possíveis impactos no tempo de retorno do investimento, contribuições negativas na qualidade de energia do sistema elétrico e apresentadas propostas de soluções para sanar ou atenuar os problemas encontrados. / Abstract: This paper presents an evaluation of the aspects of the installation of photovoltaic distributed generation systems in consumer units subjected to reactive charging in Brazil. The assessment of possible technical and financial impacts is carried out on the basis of applicable legislation and regulations. Measurement modes are addressed, the tariff system applied to the unit studied, a comparison is made with other types of consumer units with distributed generation (DG). Operating projections are carried out under defined conditions, using the equation defined by current legislation and standards. A case study is also performed in a real consumer unit. As a result we present graphs that illustrate the behavior of the photovoltaic generation curve, demanded consumption, measured consumption, as well as the behavior of the power factor in units with installed photovoltaic distributed generation system. This makes it possible to measure any positive and negative points of the installation of DG in this type of consumer unit. In the case study are also presented in table form the values and percentages of economy of the unit, comparing with the period without distributed photovoltaic generation. Finally, the possible impacts on return on investment time, negative contributions on the electric power quality of the electric system are evaluated and proposals of solutions to solve or mitigate the problems are presented. / Mestre

<p>U disertaciji je prikazano teorijsko i praktično istraživanje koje se<br />odnosi na utvrđivanje potrebnih i dovoljnih uslova za merenje<br />harmonika u realnoj elektrodistributivnoj mreži. Cilj istraživanja<br />doktorske disertacije je formulisanje merne metode i na metodi<br />baziranom hardveru - po mogućnosti minimalne rezolucije<br />primenjenih A/D konvertora - praktično dvobitnih za merenje<br />harmonika u realnoj elektrodistributivnoj mreži. Jednostavan<br />hardver omogućuje jednostavna paralelna merenja, kao i mali broj<br />izvora sistematske greške merenja, što je vrlo primenljivo u<br />merenjima u realnoj distributivnoj mreži.Simulacionom analizom, a<br />potom i eksperimentom potvrđena je hipoteza istraživanja.</p> / <p>The dissertation shows the theoretical and practical research related to the<br />determination of necessary and sufficient conditions for the measurement of<br />harmonics in a real power grid. The aim of the PhD research is to formulate<br />method and hardware based on the measurement method - preferably with<br />minimal resolution of applied A/D converter - practically 2-bit, for harmonics<br />measurement in a real power grid. Simple hardware allows simple parallel<br />measurements, as well as a small number of systematic measurement error,<br />which is applicable for measurement in the real power grid. Simulation<br />analysis, followed by the experiment, confirmed the hypothesis of this<br />research.</p>

Orientador: Helmo Kelis Morales Paredes / Resumo: Esta dissertação de mestrado propõe o desenvolvimento e a implementação de uma estratégia de compensação para conversores eletrônicos de potência (CEP) multifuncionais conectados à rede elétrica. A geração dos sinais de referência de corrente para o conversor multifuncional é obtida através das grandezas conservativas da CPT, do inglês Conservative Power Theory. O CEP proposto neste trabalho desempenha o papel de um conversor interface de rede no modo conectado, tendo como finalidade a mitigação de oscilações de potência instantânea bem como injeção de potência ativa na rede elétrica, caracterizando assim o seu aspecto multifuncional. São realizados estudos teóricos e simulações computacionais com o intuito de validar a estratégia proposta. Para tanto, foram identificadas as parcelas indesejadas de corrente que permitam a compensação das componentes oscilatórias da potência instantânea e da energia reativa instantânea da CPT. O CEP é controlado em modo corrente, através da estratégia de modulação PWM com duas malhas de controle. A estratégia de compensação e o sistema de controle serão avaliados e testados via simulação para diferentes configurações de cargas, incluindo uma carga não-linear desbalanceada operando em condições onde as distorções e desequilíbrios de tensão sejam consideráveis. Por fim, resultados experimentais obtidos com um protótipo em escala laboratorial são utilizados para validar a estratégia de compensação proposta / Abstract: This master’s thesis proposes the development and implementation of a compensation strategy for the three-phase multifunctional grid-tied inverter. The reference signal generation method for grid-tied is based on the Conservative Power Theory (CPT). In this work, the multifunctional inverter plays the role of the Utility Interface (UI) which perform several functions: in grid-connected operation, it injects active power into the grid and compensates the instantaneous power oscillation and the instantaneous reactive energy oscillation. The goal is to execute theoretical studies and computational simulations to validate the proposed strategy. For this purpose, firstly are identifies the unwanted currents which allow the compensation of the oscillatory terms of instantaneous power and reactive energy. The inverter is controlled in current mode through PWM modulation strategy with two control loops. In addition, the proposed compensation strategy and control system is evaluated and tested for different load configurations, such as linear and nonlinear loads (balanced and unbalanced) operating under different voltage conditions (distorted and unbalanced). Finally, experimental results are presented to validate the effectiveness and performance of the proposed compensation strategy. / Mestre

Harmonic propagation studies of public distribution networks require accurate models of aggregate residential customers (groups of customers) that simulate the harmonic emission of the multitude of household appliances in the network. Most of the present models were developed with the component-based approach, where models of individual household appliances are combined to build the model of multiple customers. This approach requires high amount of input data, like models of individual household appliances and detail information of customer behavior and device composition, which is usually not easy to acquire. However, with the increasing number of PQ-analyzers in the networks, the measurement-based approach is now more and more considered for the modeling of aggregate customers. The measurement-based approach uses measurements of the network in combination with top-down methodologies to obtain models of the aggregate customers. Compared to the component-based approach it has several advantages, like inherent consideration of the real operating changes of the individual household appliances, variation of customer behavior, effect of line impedances, cancellation and attenuation effects, etc. This thesis presents the development of a time-series stochastic model of the low-order harmonic emission of aggregate residential customers based on a top-down measurement-based approach. The model represents the daily variation of the harmonic magnitudes and phase angles. Besides, the model includes the representation of the harmonic unbalances, which is of great importance for the proper analysis of harmonic propagation in medium-voltage networks. The model is parametrized for German networks, but the methodology can be applied to find the models of other regions or countries.

Die Zunahme unsymmetrisch betriebener Kundenanlagen mit hoher Betriebsdauer und -strömen in Niederspannungsnetzen führt neben der stärkeren Belastung der Betriebsmittel und des Spannungsbandes zu einer Erhöhung der Spannungsunsymmetrie. Diese Arbeit untersucht diese Beeinflussungen anhand von Wiederspannungsnetzsimulationen bei verschiedener Durchdringung von Elektrofahrzeugen und Photovoltaikanalgen. Dazu werden anhand von Labor- und Netzmessungen probabilistische Lastmodelle für Haushalte, Photovoltaikanalgen und Elektrofahrzeuge entwickelt, welche die unsymmetrische Betriebsweise über einen Tag berücksichtigen. Die Auswirkungen auf die Spannungsunsymmetrie werden anhand des Verhältnisses zwischen Gegen- zu Mitsystemspannung und die Stromunsymmetrie anhand von unsymmetrischen Leistungsanteilen beschrieben. Neben der Analyse der Auswirkungen der unsymmetrisch betriebenen Kundenanlagen auf die erwähnten Kenngrößen werden mögliche Maßnahmen zur Reduzierung des Einflusses vorgestellt und durch Simulationen geprüft. Anhand der durchgeführten Betrachtungen und Simulationen wird ein Niederspannungsäquivalent abgeleitet. Mit diesem können Profile für die unsymmetrischen Leistungsanteile bestimmt werden, mit denen die Sternpunktbelastung und der Einfluss auf die Unsymmetrie im übergeordneten Netz abgeschätzt werden kann.:1 Einführung 1 1.1 Stand der Technik 1 1.2 Ziel der Arbeit 2 1.3 Struktur der Arbeit 3 2 Grundlagen 4 2.1 Elektroenergiequalität und EMV Koordinierung 4 2.2 Allgemeine Bewertungsgrößen 8 2.2.1 Gleichphasigkeitsindizes 8 2.2.2 Qualitätsreserve 9 2.2.3 Quantil 9 2.3 Betriebsmittelbelastung 10 2.4 Verlustleistung und -energie 10 2.5 Langsame Spannungsänderung 10 2.6 Unsymmetrie-Kenngrößen 13 2.6.1 Spannungsunsymmetrie 16 2.6.2 Stromunsymmetrie 18 2.6.3 Unsymmetrische Leistung 20 3 Einflussfaktoren auf die Unsymmetrie 24 3.1 Übergeordnetes Netz 24 3.2 Transformator 25 3.3 Leitung 27 3.4 Erdung 28 3.5 Kundenanlagen 33 3.5.1 Anschluss der Kundenanlagen 33 3.5.2 Statisches Verhalten hinsichtlich Spannungs- und Frequenzabhängigkeit 34 3.5.3 Analytisches Modell zur vereinfachten Abschätzung der Spannungsunsymmetrie 35 3.6 Zusammenfassende Bewertung der Einflussfaktoren 40 3.7 Maßnahmen zur Reduzierung der Unsymmetrie 41 3.7.1 Verringerung der Gegensystemspannung des übergeordneten Netzes 43 3.7.2 Verringerung der wirksamen Gegen- bzw. Nullsystemimpedanz am Verknüpfungspunkt 43 3.7.3 Verringerung des Gegen- bzw. Nullsystemstroms der anzuschließenden Kundenanlage 43 3.7.4 Erhöhung der unsymmetrischen Lastimpedanz parallel betriebener Anlagen 44 3.7.5 Beeinflussung des Phasenwinkels des Gegen- bzw. Nullsystemstroms 44 3.8 Auswahl des Messorts zur Bestimmung der höchsten Spannungsunsymmetrie 47 4 Simulationskonzept und -modelle 49 4.1 Auswahl an Kundenanlagen 49 4.1.1 Erzeugungsanlagen im Niederspannungsnetz 49 4.1.2 Elektrofahrzeuge 51 4.2 Simulationsablauf 52 4.2.1 Wahl eines Simulationsszenarios und eines Simulationsnetzes 53 4.2.2 Installation von Photovoltaikanlagen und Ladepunkten für Elektrofahrzeuge 54 4.2.3 Festlegung von zu simulierender Zeitdauer und Mittelungsintervall 54 4.2.4 Lastflussberechnung je Zeitschritt 55 4.3 Stochastische Beschreibung der gleichzeitig ladenden Elektrofahrzeuge je Außenleiter – zentrales Laden 55 4.4 Simulationsmodelle - dezentrales Laden 57 4.4.1 Übergeordnetes Netz 57 4.4.2 Betriebsmittel des Niederspannungsnetzes 60 4.4.3 Kundenanlagen 62 5 Simulationsergebnisse 72 5.1 Zentrales Laden 72 5.1.1 Methodik 72 5.1.2 Auslastung der Betriebsmittel 73 5.1.3 Leitungsverluste 73 5.1.4 Unsymmetrischer Leistungsanteil 74 5.1.5 Spannungsunsymmetrie und Spannungsdifferenz 75 5.2 Dezentrales Laden 77 5.2.1 Methodik 77 5.2.2 Auslastung der Betriebsmittel 78 5.2.3 Leitungsverluste 79 5.2.4 Spannungsdifferenz 80 5.2.5 Unsymmetrischer Leistungsanteil 82 5.2.6 Spannungsunsymmetrie 83 5.2.7 Bewertung möglicher Maßnahmen zur Reduzierung der Spannungsunsymmetrie 89 5.2.8 Einfluss unsymmetrischer Koppelimpedanzen auf die Spannungsunsymmetrie 92 5.3 Resümee und Handlungsempfehlungen 94 6 Niederspannungsäquivalent für unsymmetrische Leistungsanteile 97 6.1 Lastgang der unsymmetrischen Leistungsanteile 97 6.2 Geräteklassenabhängiger unsymmetrischer Leistungsanteil 99 6.2.1 Unsymmetrischer Leistungsanteil Haushaltslasten 99 6.2.2 Unsymmetrischer Leistungsanteil Elektrofahrzeuge 99 6.2.3 Unsymmetrische Leistungsanteile PV-Anlagen 103 6.3 Überlagerung der Zeitverläufe 104 6.4 Beispiel 105 7 Zusammenfassung, Schlussfolgerungen und Ausblick 107 Literaturverzeichnis 110 Anhang 118

The increasing demand for sustainable energy is one of the driving forces behind the increasing use of wind power by means of wind-turbines in electric power systems. Modern wind turbines commonly employ variable-speed-generator technology associated with a power-electronic converter as part of the grid connection. A drawback of the use of power electronics is the presence of harmonic emissions. Consequently a systematic study on distortion from wind power installations is needed; this holds for individual wind turbines as well for complete installations.In the work, measurements and analysis of harmonic emissions were performed on a number of wind-turbines in several wind parks in Northern Sweden. The measurements on the individual wind turbines reveal that the harmonic emissions are different from each other, even for different turbines from the same manufacturer. However in general the characteristic harmonics dominate the harmonic emissions. Furthermore, a long-term measurement shows that the dominant frequencies in the emission change with time.The total emission from a wind park into the public grid is determined by the emission from individual turbines and by the properties of the wind park. To study the impact of the wind park on the propagation a ``transfer function'' method has been introduced, and applied by means of calculation and simulation. The method is based on a mathematical model that predicts the harmonic propagation from the wind turbines to the public grid in the frequency range up to 50 kHz. Applying the model to three example parks reveals that, the amplitudes at the resonance frequency are strongly dependent on the resistance of both underground cables and transformer, especially at high frequencies. In other words, the higher order harmonics are damped a lot.In conclusion, wind park harmonic emissions into the public grid are due to the combination of emission from individual wind turbines and the propagation through the collection grid.

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The purpose of this thesis report is to investigate challenges related to railway electrification. Inac-railway systems, trains are most often single-phase loads, which can create significantunbalances in the grid, when fed directly from two adjacent phases. To enhance power quality atthe railway feeding point, one alternative is to design the system such as the power is fed to thecatenary through Static Frequency Converters (SFCs), which can be a costly solution. Anotheroption is to use Static Compensators (STATCOMs) in shunt connections, handling only theunbalanced amount of power, in order to symmetrize the railway load as seen from the grid side.Modular multilevel converters (MMCs) are the state of the art solutions for medium- and highvoltage/power converter applications, such as load balancing and reactive-power compensation.This project will focus on analyzing Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC) topologies to be usedas load balancers in railway systems. However, the specific requirements of this application reveala potential weakness of MMCs. That is the asymmetrical character of the load may require muchhigher device rating in an MMC compared to a conventional converter, due to the symmetrizingcomponents to rebalance the capacitor voltages in the submodules.This project analyzes a reduced MMC-based topology with only two branches in order to meet therailway load-balancing characteristics. This chain-link compensator uses dc-dc converters tofacilitate power channels in order to restore the power imbalance, without overrating thesemiconductors in the main current path. / Syftet med detta examensarbete är att studera de svårigheter som elektrifierade järnvägar står inför.När systemet utgörs av växelström kan tågen ses som en enfas last, vilket kan skapa avsevärdaobalanser i nätet då det matas från två intilliggande faser. En alternativ systemdesign för att uppnåen god effekt leverans uppnås då effekten är matad till kontaktledningen genom statiska frekvensomräknare (SFCs), detta kan dock vara en kostsam lösning. Ett annat alternativ är att användastatisk shunt kompensation (STATCOMs) som selektivt kan hantera den obalanserade effekten föratt uppnå symmetri och balans i järnvägslasten, sett från nätets sida.Modulära multiomriktare (MMCs) är en ledande teknik för omriktare till applikationer på mellanochhögspännings nivå, till exempel för lastbalans och reaktiv kompensering. Detta projektanalyserar modulära multiomriktare för lastbalansering i järnvägssystem. Kraven för dennaapplikation leder till en potentiell svaghet i MMCs där den asymmetriska karaktären på lastenkräver högre märkeffekt jämfört med konventionella omriktare. Detta på grund av de komponentersom återskapar symmetri och balans i kondensator spänningarna i submodulerna.Här analyseras en reducerad variant av MMC-baserad topologi med enbart två grenar för att mötakraven på järnvägens lastbalans. Denna kedjelänk-kompensator använder dc-dc omriktare för attstyra effektflödet till lasten vid obalanserad effekt, utan att för den skull överdimensionerahalvledarna i den ordinarie strömvägen.

Eine angemessene Qualität der Elektroenergie ist Grundvoraussetzung für den störungsfreien Betrieb aller angeschlossenen Geräte und Anlagen und spielt in den Verteilungsnetzen moderner Industriegesellschaften wie Deutschland eine zentrale Rolle. Die Elektroenergiequalität (EEQ) wird in Strom- und Spannungsqualität unterteilt. Während die Stromqualität maßgeblich im Verantwortungsbereich der Hersteller von Geräten und Anlagen liegt, sind für die Sicherung einer angemessenen Spannungsqualität im Wesentlichen die Netzbetreiber verantwortlich. Durch die technische Weiterentwicklung bspw. neuer Gerätetechnologien und die zunehmende Integration dezentraler Erzeugungsanlagen wie Photovoltaikanlagen ist zu erwarten, dass die EEQ auch künftig weiter an Bedeutung gewinnt. Die EEQ im Niederspannungsverteilungsnetz ist abhängig von Ort und Zeit und wird durch verschiedene Qualitätskenngrößen beschrieben. Die örtliche und zeitliche Abhängigkeit resultieren aus einer Vielzahl verschiedener Einflussfaktoren, welche sich entweder der elektrischen oder der nicht-elektrischen Umgebung des betrachteten Verteilungsnetzes zuordnen lassen. Die elektrische Umgebung wird durch die Art und Anzahl angeschlossener Verbraucher bzw. Erzeuger (Abnehmer- bzw. Erzeugerstruktur) sowie Struktur und technische Parameter des Verteilungsnetzes (Netzstruktur) bestimmt. Die nicht-elektrische Umgebung umfasst u.a. Einflüsse der klimatischen Umgebung wie bspw. Temperatur oder Globalstrahlung. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist die systematische Identifikation korrelativer Zusammenhänge zwischen den genannten Umgebungseinflüssen und der EEQ sowie deren Quantifizierung auf Basis geeigneter Indizes und Kenngrößen. Die Ergebnisse der Arbeit helfen grundlegende Prinzipien der Ausprägung der Elektroenergiequalität im öffentlichen Verteilungsnetz besser zu verstehen sowie die Verteilungsnetze im Hinblick auf die Elektroenergiequalität zu charakterisieren und zu klassifizieren. Analog zu den Standard-Lastprofilen erfolgt die Definition von Standard-Qualitätsprofilen. / Power quality levels in public low voltage grids are influenced by many factors which can either be assigned to the electrical environment (connected consumers, connected genera-tion, network characteristics) or to the non-electrical environment (e.g. climatic conditions) at the measurement site. Type and amount of connected consumers (consumer topology) are expected to have a very high impact on power quality (PQ) levels. The generation topology is characterized by number and kind of equipment and generating installations like photovoltaic systems which are connected to the LV grid. The electrical parameters of the grid define the network topology. The parameters which are most suitable to describe each of the three topologies and the climatic environment will be identified. Voltage and current quality in public low voltage (LV) grids vary depending on location and time. They are quantified by a set of different parameters which either belong to events (e.g. dips) or to variations (e.g. harmonics). This thesis exclusively addresses continuous parameters describing variations. Continuous phenomena like harmonics are closely linked to an one-day-cycle which implies a more or less periodic behavior of the continuous power quality parameters. Consumer topologies such as office buildings or residential areas differ in their use of equipment. Time series analysis is used to distinguish between different consumer topologies and to identify characteristic weeks. The clustering of one-day time series is applied to identify characteristic days within the weeks of certain topologies. Based on the results, emission profiles for certain current quality parameters of different consumer topologies will be defined. Due to the characteristic harmonic current emission of certain consumer topologies which represents the typical user behaviour a classification system is developed. It is used to automatically classify the emission profiles of harmonic currents for unknown measurements and to estimate a likely consumer topology. A classification measure is introduced in order to identify unusual or false classified emission profiles. The usage behaviour of equipment by customers usually varies over the year. Subsequently, the levels of PQ parameters like harmonics may show seasonal variations which are identified by using newly defined parameters. The introduction of new device technologies on a large scale like the transition from incandescent to LED lamps might result in long-term changes to the levels of PQ parameters (e.g. harmonics). The analysis of the long-term behavior (trend) will be applied in order to quantify global trends (looking on the measurement duration as a whole) and local trends (looking on individual segments of the whole time series).