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This article responds to the rapid urbanisation of sub-Saharan Africa. It laments the loss and deterioration of its pre-colonial urban artefacts due to neglect and even war, and pleads for their conservation and the recognition of relevant characteristics as contemporary urban solutions. Part one outlines the conceptual framework and highlights four theoretical considerations pertaining to definitions, preconceptions, methodology and sources of information. Part two contextualises the origins and nature of African urbanism with a brief historical perspective. Part three analyses the morphology of urban space, while part four concludes by discussing some seemingly intrinsic urban characteristics and their compatibility with current urban theories.

Master of Arts / Department of English / Katherine Karlin / Fintan O’Toole proposes that Irish modernist writers could afford to be “opaque, allusive, densely textured” (410). Contrastingly, he posits that contemporary Irish writers, who engage in the simple ritual of words, believe that “the accumulation of potent and precise detail, if it is sufficiently thoroughly imagined, will call the universe into being” (412). The later microcosmic approach to storytelling has the power to speak to the same philosophical ideas, falling away from “the high ambition of Irish modernism” (412). “Roinnt Scéalta: Some Stories about Irish People” examines financial globalization and social progress in Ireland through careful observation of daily life, simple fragments of Irish characters’ lives, stripped-down to small moments that stand for larger public truths: Irish wives still want holidays to Europe, Irish men still wish to gamble and be independent of authority in their work, young adults still emigrate to America. Yet there are new truths: Black children speak Irish in Gael scoils, children of Polish and Chinese immigrants play hurling and Gaelic football in Croke Park, and African men set up window-washing services in small Irish towns. These stories evoke the voices of the displaced to convey the ways in which Ireland is shifting, socially and economically: Frank has lost his job as a painter, and the strain it causes on his marriage forces him into a job for a large corporation; Peo, having demolished his way through Dublin to pave space for apartments he could never afford and businesses he would never patron, finds work providing simple comfort to Buffalo, who is at the mercy of state-supported healthcare and monthly welfare checks; Iarla is convinced by Seán that moving to America will remedy his sense of deflation toward the Irish job market. While the progression of social norms is queried in these stories, they still reinforce and embody many of the sweeping generalizations associated with Irish fiction. This collection delves into the minds and morals of the displaced Irish working class, focusing oftentimes on the pub and the inner-workings of local, social politics in a fictional small town on the skirt of Dublin’s southside.

By separating the local from the global, extant historiography fails to capture a total sense of how Africans engaged with change in the 19th and 20th centuries. Existing approaches are Eurocentric in assuming that global forces like colonialism, racism, nationalism and capitalism were the only issues that Africans confronted and thought about. A more complete history of social change is one which integrates local concerns and ideas, expressed in local languages and cosmologies, with Atlantic discourses. The history of Abeokuta in Western Nigeria had been written in a modernization model which interprets the Egba past as how a modern missionary-created elite tried to transform the society from a traditional one. By focusing on elite discourses in a wider scope than the modernization premise, a more complex history emerges in which European influence and colonial power were only part of many forces and resources which the Egba struggled over, modulated and coped with. Power in 19th century Abeokuta was invented by the construction of a national identity, history and traditions to legitimize a central monarchy. The interests of ruling elites converged with those of colonial power towards consolidating these innovations and political centralization. However, other displaced elites always contested such constructions. The crises and violence of the early 20th century were therefore not simply anti-colonial resistance. They were complicated expressions of political dissent against local, colonial and global forces of domination, and reactions to socio-economic challenges. Public health discourse reveals that the Egba did not conceive of European medicine as a dichotomous binary to local medical practices. Rather, it represented an addition of choices to a corpus of medical options. Similarly, Atlantic ideas like democracy and modernization were reduced to local understanding such that they correlated to local knowledge. Modernity for the Egba was therefore not about becoming like Europe; but about pursuing life‘s best-options in the variety of free and forceful influences. Egba society was shaped in the multiple struggles among elites advancing various claims and deploying instruments of power. This history transcends the colonial and renders Africans much more fully as actors in the making of their lives and society.

Historically South African law has been dominated by Western law. Indigenous law and the jural postulates which underpin that law are insufficiently accommodated in the South African legal order. The Western component of the official legal system is regarded as institutionally and politically superior and is as such perceived to be the dominant system. In contrast indigenous law is regarded as a servient system. The monopolistic control of the legal order by the Western section of the population resulted in the creation of a legal order primarily suited to its own needs. The fact that few of the values of indigenous law are reflected in the official legal system and the fact that there is a measure of conflict and tension between the fundamental precepts of indigenous law and those of Western law, gave rise to a crisis of legitimacy of the official legal system in South Africa. This in turn lead to the emergence of unofficial alternative structures for the administration of justice. Indigenous law should receive full recognition and enjoy the same status as Western law. To accomplish this, legislative measures which entrench a distorted indigenous law, limit the application of indigenous law, or affect its status in the South African legal order, should be revoked. Even in a multicultural society such as that of South Africa, there is a common nucleus of core values that are shared by the whole society. But different cultures have different conceptions of these basic values and their role in legal, political and social ordering. The Bill of Rights should give due recognition to the postulates which underscore both Western and indigenous law. This should be done by providing that the values the Bill entrenches, must be interpreted in their proper cultural perspective where circumstances so demand. But this will be possible only if the level of knowledge of indigenous law and its fundamental precepts is drastically improved. / LL.D

Text in Afrikaans / Die verskillende pre-koloniale samelewings in suidelike-Afrika bet in die laat 18de en vroee 19de eeue reeds 'n herkenbaar moderne vorm begin aanneem, toe hulle identiteit deur koloniale intervensie 'gevries' is. Die verhouding wat met verloop van tyd tussen hierdie samelewings en die indringende koloniste ontwikkel het, is grotendeels gebaseer op persepsies en houdinge wat reeds sedert die 17de, 18de en veral die 19de eeu weens die kontak 'n definitiewe vorm begin aanneem het. Hierdie kan as 'n proses van historiese voorstelling ("historical imaging") beskryf word. In die proefskrif word die agtergrond van hierdie pre-koloniale samelewings geskets en die historiese ontstaan van een samelewing word as tersaaklike voorbeeld bespreek. Die verhoudinge wat plaaslik as gevolg van die proses van koloniale intervensie ontstaan bet, gee met verloop van tyd aanleiding tot die beleid van af sander like ontwikkeling, waarvan die toepassing oar 'n periode van nagenoeg 50 jaar in 'n groat mate bygedra het om die identiteit van hierdie besondere samelewing op 'n besonderse wyse te vorm. Om hierdie beleid van afsonderlike ontwikkeling suksesvol toe te pas, was daar vanaf die regering van die <lag vier mikpunte waaraan voldoen moes word. Dit is deur middel van wetgewing, oorreding en manipulering bewerkstellig. Die eerste mikpunt het die ontwikkeling van 'n afsonderlike politieke bestel vir die swartmense behels, sodat hulle op 'selfstandige' wyse beheer oar die 'state' wat vir hulle geskep sou word, kon uitoefen. Die tweede mikpunt was die daarstelling van 'n eie grondgebied waarbinne die iii mense saamgevoeg kon word en wat as basis sou dien vir die fisiese skeiding tussen swartmense en blankes. Die politieke mag wat vir hulle geskep is, sou net binne die grense van hierdie eie grondgebied uitgeleef kon word. Om die beleid suksesvol tot volvoering te kon bring, moes daar ook 'n strategie vir ekonomiese oorlewing gei'mplimenteer word. Die derde mikpunt was die ekonomiese self standigmaking van elk van die gebiede. Aangesien die grondgebied wat aan hierdie mense afgestaan is totaal onvoldoende was, moes daar verskillende strategiee ontwikkel word vir hul voortbestaan - enersyds deur die regering en andersyds deur die inwoners. Laastens sou al die mense binne 'n grondgebied tot 'n homogene eenheid saamgesnoer moes word. Daar is gevolglik gepoog om 'n eie identiteit vir die inwoners van elk van die gebiede te skep. Die strategie het grootliks op 'n etniese grondslag berus en was van sodanige aard dat dit die verskille tussen die groepe beklemtoon het. Die proses van die konstruksie van identiteit is aan die lig gebring deur navorsing wat onder die Hananwa, 'n Noord-Sotho-sprekende groep mense woonagtig in die weste van Noordelike Provinsie, gedoen is. Hierdie 'konstruksieproses' was egter nie eensydig nie en die Hananwa het, soos wat dit hulle gepas het, aktief daaraan deelgeneem. Die navorsingsproses het die toepassing van 'n multi-dissiplinere benadering behels, wat hoof saaklik van antropologiese, maar ook argeologiese en historiese metodologie gebruik gemaak het. / The various pre-colonial societies of southern Africa emerged in a recognizable modern form during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when they were 'frozen' in their identities by colonial intervention. The relationships that developed with time between these societies and the colonial powers, were largely based upon perceptions and attitudes that developed since the 17th, 18th and especially the 19th centuries as a result of this contact. This latter process has been described as a process of historical imaging. In this thesis, the background to these pre-colonial societies is given and the historical development of one such society is discussed as a relevant example. The relationships that resulted locally because of this process of colonial intervention eventually gave rise to a policy of separate development, the implementation of which over a period of close to 50 years largely contributed to the creation of the identity of this particular society. As prerequisite for this policy to be successful, four aims that had to be successfully implemented were identified by the government of the day. This was done by means of legislation, persuasion and manipulation. The first aim was the development of a separate political system for black people, by which they could 'independently' govern themselves in the 'states' that were to be created for them. Secondly, for this political mechanism to work, it was necessary to establish a separate area or 'state', where the black people could live and govern themselves. The political power created for them could only be used within the v boundaries of these states. Furthermore, these states would also serve to separate whites and black people from each other. Thirdly, for this policy to work, it was necessary to develop a strategy for the economic survival of the people in these states. As the areas set aside for them were totally inadequate, a number of strategies were developed for their economic survival - on the one hand by the authorities and on the other hand by the inhabitants of these areas themselves. The last aim was to unite all the inhabitants within each of these states into one group. It was therefore tried to establish an identity or image for all the inhabitants of each of these areas. This strategy was largely based on ethnic principles, with particular emphasis on the differences between the various groups. This process of the construction of identity is discussed with reference to a specific society, known as the Hananwa, a Northern-Sotho-speaking people living in the west of the Northern Province. Amongst the Hananwa, this 'construction process' was not one-sided and they took an active part in it as it suited their particular need at a specific time. The research strategy was based on a multi-disciplinary approach that employed mainly anthropological methods, but also included archaeological and historical methodology. / Anthropology and Archaeology / D. Litt. et Phil. (Anthropology)

Esta tese de doutorado aborda os contextos funerários tradicionais na Amazônia. Mesmo tendo como pontos de partida e final a arqueologia, utilizamos dados da antropologia sociocultural e da etnologia como um todo, tanto para estruturar nossos conceitos teóricos quanto para analisar os dados. Os contextos funerários recentes podem ser uma chave para o passado, mas são principalmente evidência da complexidade do tema e da necessidade de se considerar os indivíduos e suas identidades na hora da morte. Através dos contextos analisados iremos dialogar com algumas hipóteses de ocupação vigentes na Arqueologia Amazônica: como a associação entre alguns tipos de cultura material e falantes dos principais troncos linguísticos da região (Arawak, Tupi, Karib e Jê). Foram trabalhados contextos arqueológicos da região do médio rio Solimões até o estado do Amapá. Os principais elementos analisados foram: os gestos, os contextos, os acompanhamentos, os mortos, a localização dos sepultamentos, etc. Ao final percebemos que ao mesmo tempo em que existem conceitos pan-amazônicos sobre o que seria uma \"boa morte\", existem também sociedades que buscam se diferenciar e possuem códigos próprios, individualizantes. / This dissertation addresses the traditional funerary contexts in the Amazon. Even though archaeology is the starting and ending points of our work, we used data from socio-cultural anthropology and ethnology as whole, to structure our theoretical concepts and to analyze the data. Recent funerary contexts may be a key to the past, but mostly they are evidence of the complexity of this topic and the need to consider individuals and their identities at death. Through the contexts that were analyzed, we will engage with some of the prevailing occupation hypothesis in the Amazon Archaeology, for instance: the association between some types of material culture and speakers of the main languages in this region (Arawak, Tupi, Karib and Jê). Archaeological contexts from the Middle Rio Solimões all the way to the state of Amapá were studied. The major elements taken into consideration were: the gestures, the contexts, the grave furniture, the dead, the location of the burials, etc. At the end we realized that while there are pan-Amazonian concepts of what should be a \"good death\", there are also societies that seek to differentiate themselves and have their own, individualized codes.

Historically South African law has been dominated by Western law. Indigenous law and the jural postulates which underpin that law are insufficiently accommodated in the South African legal order. The Western component of the official legal system is regarded as institutionally and politically superior and is as such perceived to be the dominant system. In contrast indigenous law is regarded as a servient system. The monopolistic control of the legal order by the Western section of the population resulted in the creation of a legal order primarily suited to its own needs. The fact that few of the values of indigenous law are reflected in the official legal system and the fact that there is a measure of conflict and tension between the fundamental precepts of indigenous law and those of Western law, gave rise to a crisis of legitimacy of the official legal system in South Africa. This in turn lead to the emergence of unofficial alternative structures for the administration of justice. Indigenous law should receive full recognition and enjoy the same status as Western law. To accomplish this, legislative measures which entrench a distorted indigenous law, limit the application of indigenous law, or affect its status in the South African legal order, should be revoked. Even in a multicultural society such as that of South Africa, there is a common nucleus of core values that are shared by the whole society. But different cultures have different conceptions of these basic values and their role in legal, political and social ordering. The Bill of Rights should give due recognition to the postulates which underscore both Western and indigenous law. This should be done by providing that the values the Bill entrenches, must be interpreted in their proper cultural perspective where circumstances so demand. But this will be possible only if the level of knowledge of indigenous law and its fundamental precepts is drastically improved. / LL.D

Text in Afrikaans / Die verskillende pre-koloniale samelewings in suidelike-Afrika bet in die laat 18de en vroee 19de eeue reeds 'n herkenbaar moderne vorm begin aanneem, toe hulle identiteit deur koloniale intervensie 'gevries' is. Die verhouding wat met verloop van tyd tussen hierdie samelewings en die indringende koloniste ontwikkel het, is grotendeels gebaseer op persepsies en houdinge wat reeds sedert die 17de, 18de en veral die 19de eeu weens die kontak 'n definitiewe vorm begin aanneem het. Hierdie kan as 'n proses van historiese voorstelling ("historical imaging") beskryf word. In die proefskrif word die agtergrond van hierdie pre-koloniale samelewings geskets en die historiese ontstaan van een samelewing word as tersaaklike voorbeeld bespreek. Die verhoudinge wat plaaslik as gevolg van die proses van koloniale intervensie ontstaan bet, gee met verloop van tyd aanleiding tot die beleid van af sander like ontwikkeling, waarvan die toepassing oar 'n periode van nagenoeg 50 jaar in 'n groat mate bygedra het om die identiteit van hierdie besondere samelewing op 'n besonderse wyse te vorm. Om hierdie beleid van afsonderlike ontwikkeling suksesvol toe te pas, was daar vanaf die regering van die <lag vier mikpunte waaraan voldoen moes word. Dit is deur middel van wetgewing, oorreding en manipulering bewerkstellig. Die eerste mikpunt het die ontwikkeling van 'n afsonderlike politieke bestel vir die swartmense behels, sodat hulle op 'selfstandige' wyse beheer oar die 'state' wat vir hulle geskep sou word, kon uitoefen. Die tweede mikpunt was die daarstelling van 'n eie grondgebied waarbinne die iii mense saamgevoeg kon word en wat as basis sou dien vir die fisiese skeiding tussen swartmense en blankes. Die politieke mag wat vir hulle geskep is, sou net binne die grense van hierdie eie grondgebied uitgeleef kon word. Om die beleid suksesvol tot volvoering te kon bring, moes daar ook 'n strategie vir ekonomiese oorlewing gei'mplimenteer word. Die derde mikpunt was die ekonomiese self standigmaking van elk van die gebiede. Aangesien die grondgebied wat aan hierdie mense afgestaan is totaal onvoldoende was, moes daar verskillende strategiee ontwikkel word vir hul voortbestaan - enersyds deur die regering en andersyds deur die inwoners. Laastens sou al die mense binne 'n grondgebied tot 'n homogene eenheid saamgesnoer moes word. Daar is gevolglik gepoog om 'n eie identiteit vir die inwoners van elk van die gebiede te skep. Die strategie het grootliks op 'n etniese grondslag berus en was van sodanige aard dat dit die verskille tussen die groepe beklemtoon het. Die proses van die konstruksie van identiteit is aan die lig gebring deur navorsing wat onder die Hananwa, 'n Noord-Sotho-sprekende groep mense woonagtig in die weste van Noordelike Provinsie, gedoen is. Hierdie 'konstruksieproses' was egter nie eensydig nie en die Hananwa het, soos wat dit hulle gepas het, aktief daaraan deelgeneem. Die navorsingsproses het die toepassing van 'n multi-dissiplinere benadering behels, wat hoof saaklik van antropologiese, maar ook argeologiese en historiese metodologie gebruik gemaak het. / The various pre-colonial societies of southern Africa emerged in a recognizable modern form during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when they were 'frozen' in their identities by colonial intervention. The relationships that developed with time between these societies and the colonial powers, were largely based upon perceptions and attitudes that developed since the 17th, 18th and especially the 19th centuries as a result of this contact. This latter process has been described as a process of historical imaging. In this thesis, the background to these pre-colonial societies is given and the historical development of one such society is discussed as a relevant example. The relationships that resulted locally because of this process of colonial intervention eventually gave rise to a policy of separate development, the implementation of which over a period of close to 50 years largely contributed to the creation of the identity of this particular society. As prerequisite for this policy to be successful, four aims that had to be successfully implemented were identified by the government of the day. This was done by means of legislation, persuasion and manipulation. The first aim was the development of a separate political system for black people, by which they could 'independently' govern themselves in the 'states' that were to be created for them. Secondly, for this political mechanism to work, it was necessary to establish a separate area or 'state', where the black people could live and govern themselves. The political power created for them could only be used within the v boundaries of these states. Furthermore, these states would also serve to separate whites and black people from each other. Thirdly, for this policy to work, it was necessary to develop a strategy for the economic survival of the people in these states. As the areas set aside for them were totally inadequate, a number of strategies were developed for their economic survival - on the one hand by the authorities and on the other hand by the inhabitants of these areas themselves. The last aim was to unite all the inhabitants within each of these states into one group. It was therefore tried to establish an identity or image for all the inhabitants of each of these areas. This strategy was largely based on ethnic principles, with particular emphasis on the differences between the various groups. This process of the construction of identity is discussed with reference to a specific society, known as the Hananwa, a Northern-Sotho-speaking people living in the west of the Northern Province. Amongst the Hananwa, this 'construction process' was not one-sided and they took an active part in it as it suited their particular need at a specific time. The research strategy was based on a multi-disciplinary approach that employed mainly anthropological methods, but also included archaeological and historical methodology. / Anthropology and Archaeology / D. Litt. et Phil. (Anthropology)

Esta tese de doutorado aborda os contextos funerários tradicionais na Amazônia. Mesmo tendo como pontos de partida e final a arqueologia, utilizamos dados da antropologia sociocultural e da etnologia como um todo, tanto para estruturar nossos conceitos teóricos quanto para analisar os dados. Os contextos funerários recentes podem ser uma chave para o passado, mas são principalmente evidência da complexidade do tema e da necessidade de se considerar os indivíduos e suas identidades na hora da morte. Através dos contextos analisados iremos dialogar com algumas hipóteses de ocupação vigentes na Arqueologia Amazônica: como a associação entre alguns tipos de cultura material e falantes dos principais troncos linguísticos da região (Arawak, Tupi, Karib e Jê). Foram trabalhados contextos arqueológicos da região do médio rio Solimões até o estado do Amapá. Os principais elementos analisados foram: os gestos, os contextos, os acompanhamentos, os mortos, a localização dos sepultamentos, etc. Ao final percebemos que ao mesmo tempo em que existem conceitos pan-amazônicos sobre o que seria uma \"boa morte\", existem também sociedades que buscam se diferenciar e possuem códigos próprios, individualizantes. / This dissertation addresses the traditional funerary contexts in the Amazon. Even though archaeology is the starting and ending points of our work, we used data from socio-cultural anthropology and ethnology as whole, to structure our theoretical concepts and to analyze the data. Recent funerary contexts may be a key to the past, but mostly they are evidence of the complexity of this topic and the need to consider individuals and their identities at death. Through the contexts that were analyzed, we will engage with some of the prevailing occupation hypothesis in the Amazon Archaeology, for instance: the association between some types of material culture and speakers of the main languages in this region (Arawak, Tupi, Karib and Jê). Archaeological contexts from the Middle Rio Solimões all the way to the state of Amapá were studied. The major elements taken into consideration were: the gestures, the contexts, the grave furniture, the dead, the location of the burials, etc. At the end we realized that while there are pan-Amazonian concepts of what should be a \"good death\", there are also societies that seek to differentiate themselves and have their own, individualized codes.