Made available in DSpace on 2015-05-14T12:43:14Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivototal.pdf: 1068366 bytes, checksum: 77b198469317d4c179ff3c7a38f64a90 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-05-08 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This work aims to present a dynamic analysis of presupposition in journalistic news, to point how the presupposed information is altered and how it contributes to the textual development. The study of presupposition is justified by the important discursive role that this linguistic phenomenon performs: it works as an element of cohesion and coherence it prevents the repetition, promotes the semantic recurrence, and establishes the condition of progression. Presupposition is an implicit information linguistically marked by expressions, presupposition triggers, that can be present in simple periods and can be, or not, projected to complex periods. In a dynamic approach, we can consider presupposition beyond the limit of the period, and see it in the textual whole, observing the relevance of the permanence, cancellation or change of the presupposed information. It is important to show that, in some cases, presuppositions are pieces of information that can only be understood clearly by considering the situational context in which they are produced. Our analysis follows a dynamic approach and the corpus is constituted by texts from the newspapers Folha de São Paulo and UOL Notícias. The option for this kind of text was made due to the intention to show the phenomenon of the presupposition in real use situations, and the news, an example of contemporaneous verbal communication with wide social presence, is also a case of a genre in use. The analysis points to the presence of important initial presuppositions, which can be kept in some cases, and cancelled in others, and shows how presuppositional dynamic contributes to the construction of the text. / Esta dissertação tem o objetivo de apresentar uma análise dinâmica da pressuposição em notícias jornalísticas, apontar como vão sendo alteradas as informações pressupostas e de que maneira isso contribui para o desenvolvimento textual. Tal estudo sobre a pressuposição se justifica pelo importante papel discursivo que esse fenômeno linguístico desempenha: funciona como elemento de coesão e coerência evita a repetição, promove a recorrência semântica e estabelece condição de progressão. A pressuposição é uma informação implícita marcada linguisticamente por expressões, ativadores de pressupostos, que pode estar presente em períodos simples e ser, ou não, projetada para períodos complexos. Numa abordagem dinâmica, podem-se considerar os pressupostos além da dimensão do período, vendo a pressuposição no todo textual, observando a relevância da permanência, cancelamento ou atualização das informações pressupostas. É importante destacar que, em alguns casos, os pressupostos são informações que só podem ser entendidas de forma clara se considerado o contexto situacional em que são produzidos, assim, são as informações compartilhadas pelos falantes no background que permitem conhecer essas informações pressupostas. Nossa análise da pressuposição tem como base a abordagem dinâmica e como corpus textos colhidos dos jornais Folha de S. Paulo e UOL Notícias. A opção por esse tipo de texto se deu pelo desejo de mostrar o fenômeno da pressuposição em situações reais de uso, e a notícia, além de ser um exemplar de comunicação verbal contemporânea de grande acesso, é representação de um gênero em uso. A análise aponta a presença de pressuposições iniciais importantes, que podem ser mantidas em alguns casos, e canceladas em outros. No decorrer da análise, apontamos de que forma a dinâmica pressuposicional contribui para a construção do texto.

L'enseignement de notions nouvelles appelle l'usage de signes nouveaux pour les élèves, de signes dont l'enseignant sait la signification inconnue des élèves. Parce que le signe "ne peut ni faire connaître ni reconnaître [son] objet" (Peirce, 2.231), l'enseignant doit, pour instruire les enfants, "leur parler de ce qu'ils ne connaissent pas encore mais avec des mots qu'ils connaissent et comprennent" (Condorcet, 1791-1792/1989, p.278). Cohabitent alors, dans le discours de l'enseignant, des signes aux significations inconnues, et d'autres aux significations connues. Ces derniers doivent permettre la compréhension des premiers. Nous faisons comme première hypothèse que, en tant que signe, un terme (nom, groupe nominal ou verbe) dont l'enseignant présuppose la signification non-connue des élèves est utilisé en association avec d'autres termes dont la signification est présupposée connue. D'une part, la production d'un signe est un processus – une sémiose (Peirce, 1978 ; Morris, 1938). D'autre part, l'enseignant, relativement au terme inconnu, attend de l'élève la construction d'un concept – des connaissances agies (Piaget 1970 ; Vergnaud, 1990) – qui est un signifié nécessairement implicite au discours. Alors, nous parlons du processus d'implicitation. A l'inverse, nous posons comme seconde hypothèse que, pour l'efficacité de la communication, un terme dont l'enseignant présuppose la signification connue des élèves est produit sans autres termes pour aider à sa compréhension. Dans ce cas, toute part du signifié est tue ; nous parlons du processus de tacitation. Défendre ces deux hypothèses, c'est défendre que l'étude du discours de l'enseignant, restreinte à une étude de la mise en coprésence (ou non) de termes entre eux, permet la saisie d'une part des présuppositions de l'enseignant quant aux connaissances des élèves. C'est la thèse que nous soutenons. La réduction alors opérée des phénomènes langagiers est franche, notamment sur leurs aspects syntaxiques et pragmatiques. Il ne s'agit pas de négliger l'existence de ces aspects, mais de tester l'heuristique, pour l'enseignement, d'un principe fondamental associationiste du langage. A l'aide d'apports philosophiques (quand il s'agit de l'étude du signe et de la sémiose), épistémologiques et didactiques (quand il s'agit d'ancrer notre réflexion dans une théorie de la connaissance et des apprentissages) et linguistiques (quand il s'agit de justifier l'appel aux termes implicite et tacite), nous défendons d'abord théoriquement cette réduction (partie I, chap. I et II). A partir d'études de cas issues d'enseignements de mathématiques, nous construisons ensuite une méthodologie couplant l'observation d'enseignants – pour l'accès aux termes qu'ils utilisent – et des entretiens d'auto-confrontation – pour l'accès (indirect) à leurs présuppositions. Dans notre groupe de sujets (composés d'enseignants de mathématiques, sciences physiques et biotechnologies), lors de l'étude de 259 occurrences de termes, nous parvenons à prédire 80% des présuppositions des enseignants (partie I, chap. III). Forts de ce résultat donnant à l'implicitation et la tacitation un crédit empirique, nous proposons alors d'en repérer les instances dans l'intégralité de 10 séances d'enseignement de sciences physiques sur la quantité de matière. Nous montrons que l'étude de la répartition dans le temps des deux types de processus permet le repérage de moments d'enseignement distincts quant à 1. la gestion de l'hétérogénéité de la classe par l'enseignant et 2. la dépendance de la compréhension du discours par les élèves à leurs connaissances préalables (partie II, chap. IV et V). Les processus d'implicitation et de tacitation, par les éclairages nouveaux qu'ils apportent, peuvent participer aux débats qui portent sur les interactions verbales de la salle de classe. / Teaching of a new lesson calls the use of signs that are new to the students: they do not know their meaning and the teacher knows they do not know them. Since a sign “cannot furnish acquaintance with or recognition of [its] object” (Peirce, 2.231), the teacher has to speak of what the students do not know with words they know and understand (Condorcet, 1791-1792/1989). Consequently, signs with known meaning and signs with unknown meaning coexist in teachers' speech, and the firsts should allow the latter to be understood. Our first hypothesis is: when the teacher presupposes that the meaning of a term (a noun, a noun phrase or a verb) is unknown for the students, he uses it in association with other terms that are presupposed to be known for the students. The production of a sign is a process; a semiosis (Peirce, 1978; Morris, 1938). Regarding the unknown term, the teacher expects from the students the construction of a concept – acted knowledge (Piaget 1970; Vergnaud, 1990) – which is necessarily implicitly signified by the term. Therefore, we speak of the process of implicitation. We draw up a second hypothesis. For an effective communication, the teacher does not use a term in association with other terms when he presupposes that its meaning is known for the students. In this case, all part of the meaning of the term is kept silent; so we speak of the process of tacitation. Defending both these hypothesis means assuming that we can identify teachers' presuppositions about students' knowledge from the study of mere association of terms in teachers' speech. The part of linguistic phenomena on which we focus is therefore limited. We leave aside the syntactic and the pragmatic dimensions of language. We suggest that such an approach may be heuristic for understanding the production of teachers' speech. With contributions from philosophy (when we study signs and semiosis), epistemology and didactics (when we root our work in a theory of knowledge and learning) and linguistic (when we justify our use of the words implicit and tacit), we start our dissertation by theoretically defending our approach (part I, chap. I & II). From case studies of mathematics lessons, we build a methodology based on both teachers' observation – to access the terms they use – and interviews – to access (indirectly) their presuppositions. In our group of subjects (mathematics, chemistry and biology teachers), we succeed in predicting 80% of teachers' presuppositions related to 259 occurrences of terms (part I, chap. III). This result strongly supports the existence of implicitation and tacitation. Therefore, we pursue our work by locating their instances in 10 whole lessons of chemistry. We show that the study of their distribution in time allows detecting teaching phases that are different by 1. the way the teacher deals with the heterogeneity of the class and 2. the way students' comprehension of teachers' speech is dependent on their preexisting knowledge (part II, chap. IV & V). Thus, implicitation and tacitation processes bring new light to discussions about verbal interactions in class.

On the Presupposition Projection in Czech I understand presupposition as both an implication and a set of requirements which have to be fulfilled by the (passive) context, i.e. a set of realized propositions and logico- semantic relations between them shared by the communicants. The content of presupposition is formed by information which the speaker characterizes as predetermined, i.e. known to the communicants. Presupposition is a semantically narrower notion than implication: every meaning expressed indirectly is implied, but not every implied meaning is presupposed. Contextually bound constituents express a proposition which is included in the active context, i.e. a set of propositions on which the communicants are actively focused. Contextual boundness is a type of presupposition trigger: information included in the active context is a necessary part of the passive context (it doesn't hold true vice versa, of course). Context shared by the communicants can not be incremented by the primary (i.e. directly expressed) proposition of a clause, unless all the presuppositions semantically entailed in the primary proposition are satisfied. Presupposition is satisfied if and only if proposition p which forms a content of the presupposition is part of the (passive) context. In case that the context...

O objetivo desta dissertação é demonstrar que a responsabilidade civil aquiliana, no ordenamento jurídico brasileiro, tem como pressuposto fundamental a causação de dano injusto. Esse objetivo justifica-se porque existem posições doutrinárias, conhecidas como direito de danos, que defendem a desnecessidade do dano injusto para que seja deflagrada a estrutura de responsabilização civil. Analisam-se, para tanto, a estrutura e a finalidade da responsabilidade civil, bem como o seu enquadramento no sistema jurídico brasileiro. / The aim of this dissertation is to show that the non-contractual civil liability in the Brazilian legal order has as a fundamental presupposition the causation of the unfair damage. This aim is justifiable because there are doctrinaire opinion, known as damage law, that advocate the unnecessariness of the unfair damage to be triggered the structure of civil liability. It analyzes, therefore, the structure and the goal of the civil liability, as well as its fitting into the Brazilian legal system.

Cette thèse vise à rendre compte conjointement des jugements de valeurs de vérité non-bivalents, c'est-à-dire des jugements ne correspondant ni à « Vrai » ni à « Faux », déclenchés par des phrases présuppositionnelles (telles que 1 en contexte où Oscar n'est pas français), vagues (telles que 2 en contexte où Oscar est de taille moyenne) ou encore hybrides (telles que 3 en contexte où l'interlocuteur est de taille moyenne).1. Oscar a réalisé que tu es français.2. Oscar est vieux.3. Oscar a réalisé que tu es vieux.Sur la base de systèmes logiques définissant trois valeurs de vérité (vrai, faux et autre) proposés dans la littérature sur le vague tout comme dans la littérature sur la présupposition, j'élabore dans un premier temps un système à cinq valeurs de vérité ordonnées, qui définit ainsi trois paliers intermédiaires entre le vrai et le faux.Suite à l'obtention de résultats expérimentaux incompatibles avec les prédictions de ce système, je propose dans un deuxième temps un système à quatre valeurs de vérité non ordonnées, compatible avec les résultats et qui place cette fois le vague et la présupposition sur des dimensions distinctes. Une expérience menée avec Paul Égré établit par ailleurs que les locuteurs rejettent systématiquement des descriptions contradictoires comme « vieux et jeune », mais qu'ils peuvent accepter des descriptions contradictoires comme "ni vieux ni jeune", "ni veux ni pas vieux" et "vieux et pas vieux". Ces résultats confortent l'idée qu'une phrase vague comme 1 peut être jugée "Ni vraie ni fausse" mais aussi "Vraie et fausse", et nous permettent de discriminer entre deux approches concurrentes de l'antonymie adjectivale. / The aim of my thesis is to give a uniform account of non-bivalent truth-value judgments induced by presuppositional expressions and by vague expression (namely judgments other than "True" or "False"). For example, a presuppositional sentence like 1 below is typically judged neither true nor false in a context where Oscar is not French, and a vague sentence like 2 is also reported as neither true or nor false in a context where Oscar is of an average height. The same holds of a hybrid sentence like 3, combining a vague adjective and a presuppositional expression, in a context where the interlocutor is of an average height:1. Oscar has realized that you are French.2. Oscar is old.3. Oscar has realized that you are old. Abstract:Drawing on systems defining three logical values (true, false and other) and discussed both in the literature on vagueness and in the literature on presupposition, I propose a system with five totally ordered values, thereby defining three intermediate levels between true and false.After collecting experimental data conflicting with the predictions of this system, I propose a system with four values which is compatible with the experimental results and where the four values are partially ordered along a dimension specific to vagueness and along a dimension specific to presupposition.To get further insights about truth-value judgments specific to vagueness, I conducted another set of experiments (in collaboration with Paul Égré), showing that speakers systematically reject contradictory descriptions of the form "old and young" but that they can accept contradictory descriptions of the form "neither old nor young", "neither old nor not old" and "old and not old". These results echo the idea that vague sentences like 1 can be judged "Neither true nor false" but also "True and false", and allow us to discriminate between two competing theories of adjectival antonyms.

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Introduktion: Under 2011 till året därpå var två politiker, Carl Bildt (moderat utrikesminister) och Håkan Juholt (Socialdemokraternas partiledare), utsatta för mediedrev: Etiopiensvenskar-na och bostadsaffären. Juholt var som en svamp som sög upp all kritik medan Bildt framstod som teflon i jämförelse. Hur kommer det sig att Bildt klarade sig och fick sitta kvar som mi-nister, medan Juholt avgick? Problem: Vad är det som skiljer Bildt från Juholts retorik under mediedreven 2011 enligt sta-tusläran? Hur ramar journalisterna in debatten för Bildt respektive Juholt? Teori: Med statusläran (stasis theory) kan en sakfråga analyseras retoriskt genom ett av fyra status (”ställning”): fakta, definition, kvalitet eller procedur. Exempelvis, ett dödande kan handla om huruvida det ägt rum (fakta), om det var mord eller självförsvar (definition), om det var rätt (kvalitet) samt om frågan ska avgöras i annat forum (procedur). Fakta och proce-dur är starkast försvar, definition och kvalitet svagast. Metod: Kvalitativ retorisk analys av Bildt och Juholts medieframträdanden i tv och radio, där medierna anklagar och aktörerna försvarar sig i en dialogsituation. Resultat: Bildt använder mer eller mindre uteslutande ett bevisande (fakta) och överförande status (procedur). När ny information är motstridig, hävdar han att den ska beskrivas an-norlunda (definition). Juholt använder huvudsakligen ett kvalitativt status, ofta för att bedyra sin goda karaktär, även när han kunde valt ett mer lämpligt status. Flera fall har också upp-täckts där journalisterna ställt frågor som varit inramade (presupponerad) på ett tveksamt sätt, ofta på ett kvalitativt status. Diskussion: Bildt använder starkare status vilket får till följd att skandalen inte tenderar att utvecklas i lika hög utsträckning då frågor om moral och värderingar utesluts. Juholt har valt det svagaste statuset. Slutsatsen är att man inte ska välja en försvarsstrategi och hålla fast vid den, utan anpassa försvaret varefter som ny information blir tillgänglig och anklagelsernas karaktär förändras. Slutsatsen gäller reaktiv kriskommunikation, inte nödvändigtvis proaktiv. Dessutom föreslås tre nya analyskriterier till statusläran. Studien begränsas huvudsakligen av medievalet (radio och tv) eftersom bara en del av den medierade politiken fångas, liksom ty-pen av kris (etiska normbrott). / Introduction: During 2011, two major Swedish politicians, Carl Bildt (right-wing foreign min-ister) and Håkan Juholt (leader of the Social Democrats), were set under siege during a so called ‘media hunt’: The Ethiopiaswedes and the residence affair. Juholt was like a sponge absorbing every bit of critique, whereas Bildt seemed like Teflon in comparison. How did Bildt manage to remain in power, while Juholt had to resign? Problem: What sets Bildt’s rhetoric apart from Juholt’s rhetoric during the media hunt under 2011 in relation to the stasis theory? How do the journalists frame the media discourse for Bildt and Juholt? Theory: A controversy can be analyzed rhetorically with one of four stases of the stasis theo-ry: fact, definition, quality or procedure. E.g., a killing has either occurred or not (fact), it may be defined as murder or self-defense (definition), there’s a question if it was the right thing to do (quality) and if the controversy should be judged in another forum (procedure). Fact and procedure is the strongest defense, definition and quality is the weakest. Method: Qualitative rhetorical analysis of Bildt’s and Juholt’s media appearances in TV and radio, where the media accuse and the politicians defend themselves in a dialogue situation. Results: Bildt uses more or less exclusively the stases of fact and procedure. When new in-formation is contradictory to fact, he claims that it should be described differently (stasis of definition). Juholt mostly uses a stasis of quality to assert his good moral character, even when he could’ve chosen a more appropriate stasis. A few cases where the journalists’ questions have been framed (presuppositioned) in a questionable manner have also been found, often in a qualitative stasis. Discussion: Bildt uses stronger stasis which prevents the scandal from evolving and therefore excludes questions about morals and values. Juholt uses a weaker stasis. The conclusion is that one shouldn’t select a rhetorical self-defense strategy and stick to it; rather, the defense should adapt to new information as well as changes in the type of accusation. This conclusion holds for reactive crisis communication, not necessarily proactive. Three new analytical criteria for the stasis theory are also offered. The study is primarily limited by the type of crisis (norm transgressions) and the choice of media (radio and TV) because only a part of the mediatized politics is captured.

This dissertation collects four papers on common knowledge and one on introspection principles in epistemic game theory. The first two papers offer a sustained argument against the importance of common knowledge and belief in explaining social behavior. Chapters 3 and 4 study the role of common knowledge of tautologies in standard models in epistemic logic and game theory. The first considers the problem as it relates to Robert Aumann’s Agreement Theorem; the second (joint work with Peter Fritz) studies it in models of awareness. The fifth paper corrects a claimed Agreement Theorem of Geanakoplos (1989), and exploits the corrected theorem to provide epistemic conditions for correlated equilibrium and Nash equilibrium.

The general goal of this dissertation is to highlight the role of discourse pragmatics in the explanation of the use of the indicative and subjunctive moods in Spanish sentential complements. This dissertation examines mood selection in Spanish complements in order to illustrate the shortcomings of the traditional semantic/syntactic approach (Terrell & Hooper (1974), Hooper (1975), P. Klein (1974), Fukushima (1978-79), Bell (1980), and Takagaki (1984)) and to provide within the Information Structure framework (Lambrecht 1994; 2001) a detailed analysis of mood selection in Spanish complement clauses. Considering some existing pragmatic approaches to Spanish mood selection (e.g., Lavandera 1983, Guitart 1991, Mejías-Bikandi 1994, 1998), they are found to be inadequate because they are based on decontextualized sentences. This dissertation considers the context where sentences take place and contributes to our understanding of mood selection in Spanish complements as a formal reflection of the pragmatic properties and relations of the discourse referents that are denoted by noun complements, considering pragmatic notions of presupposition and assertion of propositional referents, their activation, and the pragmatic relations of topic/focus of these referents in the utterances. The notion of pragmatic assertion used in this dissertation is based on the notion of speaker intent, and it is equated with the notion of inactive discourse referents, which are in turn linked to the use of indicative mood in complements of assertive matrices. The notion of pragmatic presupposition is equated with the notion of active referents in the discourse, which are in turn linked to the use of subjunctive mood in complements of doubt/negation and comment matrices. However, this thesis argues that not all uses of subjunctive are motivated by the active status of propositional referents. Volitional and possibility uses of subjunctive are analyzed, similarly to assertive matrices, as activating a discourse referent. Yet, contrary to assertive matrices, and following Fauconnier’s (1985) theory of mental spaces, the referent activated belongs to the domain that represents an individual’s view of reality. This account of mood distribution in complement clauses is eventually extended to adjectival and adverbial subordinates and provides an explanation of mood distribution in all subordinate contexts in Spanish. / text

O fenômeno da factividade, no âmbito da linguística, em sentido amplo, está relacionado à propriedade que certos itens lexicais ou determinados predicadores gramaticais possuem de introduzir um pressuposto, que pode estar implícito ou explícito. No domínio verbal, Kiparsky e Kiparsky (1971) remetem a um conjunto de verbos, os quais admitem uma sentença como complemento e cujo uso pressupõe a veracidade da proposição aí expressa. Em termos aquisicionais, não há consenso acerca da idade em que factividade estaria dominada. Hopmann e Maratsos (1977), por exemplo, propuseram que seu domínio se daria a partir dos 6 anos. Para Abbeduto e Rosenberg (1985), no entanto, isso ocorreria mais cedo, por volta dos 4 anos de idade. Já Schulz (2002; 2003), defende uma aquisição gradual, que se daria por estágios e se estenderia até os 7;0 anos de idade. Léger (2007), por sua vez, afirma que o domínio da factividade, especificamente dos semifactivos, só se daria após os 11 anos. Scoville e Gordon (1979), por fim, propõem que só por volta dos 14 anos a criança seria capaz de dominar a factividade em todos os seus aspectos. Essa falta de consenso corrobora a ideia de uma aquisição gradual, uma vez que esse fenômeno envolve vários aspectos: identificação de uma subclasse de verbos, uma interpretação semântica específica, uma subcategorização sintática variável entre as línguas e um comportamento característico no que diz respeito ao movimento-QU. Esta dissertação tem como objetivo geral contribuir para os estudos sobre aquisição da factividade, particularmente no que diz respeito ao português, debruçando-se mais especificamente sobre dois aspectos pouco explorados na literatura da área: uma questão de variação translinguística, que diz respeito à possibilidade de se admitirem complementos não-finitos factivos em português, e a questão da interpretação de interrogativas-QU em contextos factivos, com propriedades características de ilha fraca. O quadro obtido é discutido frente às análises linguísticas propostas para os verbos/ predicados factivos, que têm considerado uma distinção sintática (KIPARSKY E KIPARSKY, 1971; MELVOLD, 1991; SCHULZ, 2003; AUGUSTO, 2003; LIMA, 2007), com repercussões de ordem lógico/ semântica (LEROUX E SCHULZ, 1999; SCHULZ, 2002; 2003) / In the realm of linguistic theory, the phenomenon of factivity is, in a broad sense, related to the property some lexical items or predicates exhibit of introducing an implicit or explicit presupposition. In the verbal domain, Kiparsky and Kiparsky (1971) assume that factive verbs carry the presupposition that the complement clause they may subcategorize expresses a true proposition. From the acquisition point of view, there is no clear consensus about the age of mastery of the properties of factive sentences. Hopmann & Maratsos (1977) conclude that factive sentences are mastered around age 6. For Abbeduto & Rosenberg (1985), children age 4 have already achieved it. Schulz (2002; 2003) argues for a stepwise acquisition pattern, suggesting stages children pass through up to 7 years old. Léger (2007) adds to Schulzs yet another stage in order to account for some semifactive verbs, for which the right distinction wouldnt be in place before 11 years old. At last, Scoville & Gordon (1979) suggest that only 14 year olds would be able to fully master factivity. This variety of results corroborate the idea of a stepwise acquisition pattern, let alone the different aspects involved in the phenomenon of factivity: the identification of a class of verbs allowing a factive reading, its presuppositional character, interlinguistic variation concerning possible subcategorization frames and a specific behavior as far as extraction in complex sentences is considered. This study aims at contributing for the investigation of the acquisition of factivity in Portuguese, focusing specifically on two underexplored aspects: the possibility of some factive predicates allowing non-finite complements in this language and the extraction patterns in factive complex sentences. The results obtained are discussed in the light of linguistic analyses, which couch on distinct syntactic features assigned to the factive predicates, (KIPARSKY E KIPARSKY, 1971; MELVOLD, 1991; SCHULZ, 2003; AUGUSTO, 2003; LIMA, 2007), with logical/semantic outcomes (LEROUX E SCHULZ, 1999; SCHULZ, 2002; 2003)