Thesis (MPhil)-- University of Stellenbosch, 2000 / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: It is a well-known fact that the sub-Saharan Africa is a continent most affected by HIV/AIDS. The HIV/AIDS pandemic has in other words become our disease. For many of us, this fact may be difficult to fully accept. There are elements of prejudice in our reactions. Ignorance and intolerance can be found around the world. Therefore, by presenting the facts about HIV/AIDS, this assignment challenges the misconceptions and focuses on the profound dilemmas confronting society. I think the success in combating the HIV/AIDS pandemic could be found in President Thabo Mbeki's terminology "Partnership against HIV/AIDS". In his speech, the President appealed to both the private and public sectors and all South Africans to work together with greater determination than before to fight against HIV infection and AIDS. Arguably, this was the best speech President Thabo Mbeki ever made on HIV/AIDS on October 9, 1998. Back then, the government seems to have had a direction and led from the front in the battle against HIV/AIDS. The title of this thesis reads: "Ethical perspectives on surveillance and preventive strategies for HIV/AIDS in South Africa". Presently, the South African Government through the Ministry of Health is seriously considering making AIDS a notifiable medical condition. This is a serious and a controversial move that has serious ethical and legal implications that will be discussed. Should partners of HIV-infected individuals be informed? If the answer is on the affirmative, who should inform them? I am also looking at the ethical obligation of health care workers to treat HIV/AIDS patients despite the fear of being accidentally infected. Tough questions need to be asked. Should health workers be informed of the HIV status of every patients they treat? On the other hand, some patients have some fears too that HIV-infected health professionals may infect them. Again, the fundamental ethical concerns related to confidentiality, privacy, the right to treatment will also be discussed. The country is divided on this issue. Ethical principles are directly involved in such a decision, for instance, the principle of confidentiality, respect for autonomy and informed consent. How can the government go about implementing this without disregarding these fundamental ethical requirements?Another ethical issue that comes to mind regarding HIV/AIDS concerns AIDS vaccine trials, which are so far dominantly manufactured in 'developed countries' while subjects of these trials are from 'third world' or 'developing countries '. The ethical concerns here are: How will informed consent be protected, especially where subjects of the trials are not educated and do not understand the terms used? What are the cost-effects or benefits of such trials? What are the risks involved? Together with this, other issues include ethical debates concerning market prices of drugs, which are too expensive for poorer countries and affordable for richer countries. Finally, this work does not treat everything that needs to be dealt with insofar as HIV/AIDS is concerned. However, I hope that this thesis will contribute (in a small way) in making people appreciate the ethical dilemmas that are presented by HIV/AIDS. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Dit is algemeen bekend dat Afrika suid van die Sahara die gebied is met die hoogste voorkoms van MIV/vIGS. Die MIV/VIGS-pandemie het dus ons siekte geword. Dit is vir baie van ons moeilik om hierdie feit te aanvaar, en ons reaksies is dikwels bevooroordeeld. Onkunde en onverdraagsaamheid oor MIV/vIGS word trouens wereldwyd aangetref. Hierdie verhandeling Ie klem op die feite van MIV/VIGS, en konfronteer sodoende hierdie wanopvattings terwyl daar gefokus word op die diepgaande dilemmas waarmee die samelewing gekonfronteer word. President Thabo Mbeki se woorde "Vennootskap teen MIV/VIGS" verwoord myns insiens die enigste oplossing vir die MIV/VIGS-pandemie. Die President doen in sy toespraak 'n beroep op al1e Suid-Afrikaners, in private en openbare sektore, om met groter determinasie saam te veg teen MIV-infeksie en VIGS; Hierdie toespraak, gelewer op 9 Oktober 1998, toe die regering klaarblyklik nog rigting gehad het en op die voorfront was in die styd teen MIV/VIGS, was moontlik President Thabo Mbeki se beste ooit oor die onderwerp MIV/VIGS. Die titel van hierdie verhandeling is "Etiese perspektiewe ten opsigte van waarnemende en voorkomende strategiee vir MIV/VIGS in Suid-Afrika". Die Suid-Afrikaanse regering, by monde van die Ministerie van Gesondheid, oorweeg dit tans sterk om VIGS 'n aanmeldbare mediese kondisie te verklaar. Die ernstige etiese en regsimplikasies van so 'n daadwerklike en kontroversiele stap sal in die verhandeling bespreek word. Behoort die rnetgesel1e van MIV-positiewe persone ingelig te word? Indien wei, wie moet hulle in kennis stel? Daar sal ook gekyk word na die etiese verpligting van gesondheidsorgwerkers om MIV/VIGS-pasiente te behandel ten spyte van hul1e vrees om per ongeluk besmet te word. Indringende vrae moet gevra word. Behoort gesondheidsorgwerkers ingelig te word oor die MIV-status van elke pasient wat hul1e behandel? Aan die ander kant vrees sornmige pasiente dat hul1e deur MIV-positiewe gesondheisorgwerkers besmet kan word. Die fundamentele etiese aangeleenthede rakende vertroulikheid, privaatheid en die reg tot mediese behandeling sal ook bespreek word. Suid-Afrika is verdeeld oor hierdie kwessies. Etiese waardes, soos die beginsel van vertroulikheid, respek vir outonomie en ingeligte goedkeuring is direk betrokke by besluite oor etiese kwessies. Die regering kan nie hierdie aangeleenthede implementeer sonder om die fundamentele etiese vereistes in ag te neem nie. VIGS-entstofproefnemings is'n verdere etiese kwessie wat ter sprake kom. Hierdie proefnemings word grotendeels deur "ontwikkelde" lande uitgevoer, tewyl die proefpersone van "derdewereldse" of "ontwikkelende" lande afkomstig is. Die etiese kwessies hierby betrokke is: hoe sal ingeligte goedkeuring beskerm word, veral wanneer proefpersone onopgevoed is en nie die tersaaklike terme verstaan nie? Wat is die kosteeffektiwiteit of voordele van hierdie proefnemings? Watter risiko's is betrokke? Die etiese debat oor die markprys van medisyne, wat heel bekostigbaar vir ryk lande, maar duur vir armer lande is, word ook aangeraak. Hierdie verhandeling dek nie alle relevante kwessies wat betref MIV/VIGS nie. Tog hoop ek dat dit 'n bydrae sal lewer tot mense se bewuswording van die etiese dilemmas wat MIV/VIGS inhou.

所謂「罷工」，是指「多數勞工有計畫性的不履行其勞務」而言。至於「糾察線」，一般而言是指工會在進行罷工時，為了鼓勵其他受僱人支持該工會之行動，而由工會成員或參與「罷工」者，手持標語而在雇主之工作場所入口處所進行的說服行為。然而，一個可以想像、同時也是過去時常發生的問題─雇主可不可以直接請求國家主動介入，甚至進一步排除勞方所發動的各項爭議手段？若自警察權限行使的角度出發，目前學理上所存在的幾個重要的警察任務，除了傳統的「危害防止」之外，新興的「危害預防」以及備受爭議的「私權保護」，似乎都可以是警察介入勞資爭議事件的理由。除了前述思考外，若就勞資爭議事件的外觀觀之，由於爭議行為是屬於勞工集體性權利行使後的結果，因此在此一集體性外觀之下，以規範特定多數人集體意志行動的「集會遊行法」似乎就存有介入的空間。然而，若我們認為勞工的集體性權利在憲法上有其獨特的地位，而應受到特別的保障，但卻又允許充滿諸多不合理規範的「集會遊行法」恣意介入，這是否已經形成了「憲法上允許、但實定法上不允許」的矛盾結果？因此，在特定法領域內進行思考時，應同時考慮罷工背後所代表的獨特社會意義，並試著融入此一理念，不宜以該領域內的原理原理原普遍性的適用於罷工事件，而導致罷工遭到實質上架空的結果。在此一思考下，在具體的勞資爭議事件中，除了考量警察的核心任務要件外，勞動法領域內重要的原理原則，例如「團體協約自治」、「國家中立原則」、「爭議對等原則」等，也是重要的判斷因素。 首先，若我們面對的是「罷工」時，若就「危害防止」任務的角度，雖然勞工在調解不成立、且經過罷工投票程序正式取得罷工權後，將會形成外觀上可具體辨認的「危害」，但「罷工」本質上為單純的民事上債務不履行，不會對警察所欲保護的「公共安全」法益形成侵害，因此警察不得以「危害防止」為由介入；其次，若是「私權保護」任務，「罷工」雖屬純粹的私權爭執，因而落入警察之「私權保護」任務之範疇，但「罷工」所形成的危害不具有不可回復性，且因勞工主管機關在勞資爭議事件中的頻繁介入，實際上也不能滿足「輔助性」的要求，因此縱經雇主請求，警察亦不能以「私權保護」為由介入；其三，依據警察的「危害預防」任務，若罷工中的勞工若具有集會遊行的外觀時，警察可以依據警察職權行使法第9條針對在場的勞工進行資料蒐集，但其權限行使範圍不包括「不具集會遊行外觀的罷工活動」，例如工會幹部於罷工前私下進行的聯繫與討論等；其四，若有存在集會遊行外觀的罷工行動時，以罷工為目的的集會遊行雖不能與「罷工」本身畫上等號，但此類集會遊行的核心精神仍是在於強化罷工本身的效果，因此基於憲法上對於集體性同盟自由的最大保障，應認為此類集會遊行應不受集會遊行法所規範，因此警察不得以集會遊行法為由強行介入；退步言之，縱然是採取「以罷工為目的的集會遊行」應受集會遊行法所規範的見解，仍應認為該集會遊行屬於集會遊行法第8條第1項第1款之「依法令規定舉行」之例外，因此毋庸事前申請。但我們在以警察法的角度思考之餘，仍應進一步考量「爭議對等原則」及「國家中立原則」的立場，因此前述自警察法角度得出的結論應再進一步修正，亦即不應允許警察以「危害預防」任務以及「集會遊行法」為由，過度干預勞工的爭議權行使。 而警察若面對的是「糾察線」時，又應如何處理？首先，就「危害防止」任務而言，仍可以集體勞動法領域的「和平勸服說」作為警察的職權發動判斷依據；其次，在「私權保護」任務的部分，若糾察線的設置導致激烈的衝突，而使行為人因而該當特定刑法構成要件時，因已經經過刑法所保護的特定法益並非「未經刑罰或公法化」之私權，不能滿足「私權保護」任務之前提，因此警察當然不能以此為由加以介入；其三，在「危害預防」任務的部分，警察可以依據警察職權行使法第9條針對糾察線設置現場的勞工進行資料蒐集；其四，在「集會遊行法」的部分，本文採取與罷工相同的看法，亦即一個以罷工為目的的集會遊行，由於其核心精神仍是在於勞動條件的談判，基於憲法上對於集體性同盟自由的最大保障，應認為此類集會遊行應不受集會遊行法所規範，因此警察不得以集會遊行法為由強行介入。而糾察線屬於附隨於罷工的重要爭議行為，其既為同盟自由所保障的集體勞動行為之一，亦應為相同解釋，因此就此一問題應採取否定的看法。至於「爭議對等原則」及「國家中立原則」的部分，若考量個別糾察線的設置若因違反刑法而遭到警察介入時，不必然會影響其他正在進行的爭議行為，換言之，個別糾察線設置的排除不必然會導致勞方的整體抗爭力量被過度削弱，因此仍應允許警察在滿足「危害防止」及「危害預防」任務要件的同時，主動發動其職權，例如以強制力排除侵害以及事先進行資料蒐集等。

One of the realities that developing countries like Nigeria have to face today is that national and international markets have become more and more interconnected through the global platform of telecommunications and the Internet. This global networked economy is creating a paradigm shift in the focus of development goals and strategies particularly for developing countries. Globalisation is driving the nations of the world more into political and economic integration. These integrations are enhanced by a globally interconnected network of economic and communication systems at the apex of which is the Internet. This network of networks thrives on and encourages the expansion of cross-border flows of ideas and information, goods and services, technology and capital. Being an active member of the global network economy is essential to Nigeria’s economic development. It must plug into the network or risk being shut out. The global market network operates by means of rules and standards that are largely set by the dominant players in the network. Data protection is a critical component of the regime of rules and standards that govern the global network economy; it is evolving into an international legal order that transcends geographical boundaries. The EU Directive on data protection is the de facto global standard for data protection; it threatens to exclude non-EU countries without an adequate level of privacy protection from the EU market. More than 50 countries have enacted data protection laws modelled on the EU standard. Access to the huge EU market is a major motivation for the current trend in global harmonisation of domestic data protection laws. This trend provides a compelling reason for examining the issues relating to data protection and trans-border data flows and their implications for Nigeria’s desire to integrate into the global network economy. There are two primary motivations for legislating restrictions on the flow of data across national boundaries. The first is the concern for the privacy of the citizens, and second, securing the economic well-being of a nation. It is important that Nigeria’s privacy protection keeps pace with international norms in the provision of adequate protection for information privacy order to prevent potential impediments to international trading opportunities. / Public, Constitutional, and International / LL. D.

This study focuses on the right to privacy in the workplace, specifically employees' expectations of electronic privacy where personal information is processed. The main aim of this dissertation is to establish whether, given advantages in technology, South African laws offers adequate protection for employees when their electronic information is being processed. The study analyses South African law as it relates to the privacy of employees during the processing of their personal information in the workplace.This is examined within the parameters of the constitutional and legislative framework with due regard to the common-law right to privacy. The legal issues are examined from a South African context and is compared with data protection laws and regulations of the United Kingdom. It also offers recommendations based on experience gained in the United Kingdom. / Private Law / LL. M.

Univ., Diss--Bern, 2007.

This study focuses on the use of Social Network Sites (SNSs) and certain personality rights (specifically the right to privacy and the right to identity) that may be infringed by this use. The study also discusses data protection law as the protection of the rights to privacy and identity are interlinked with data protection in that data protection assumes importance when there is processing of personal information on SNSs. The study seeks to determine whether South African law provides adequate protection for the interests that form the object of these personality rights, and highlights certain shortcomings, particularly in the context of SNSs. It also suggests solutions where there are shortcomings by learning from other jurisdictions. Related issues investigated are: who should be held responsible for the user-generated content uploaded on SNSs; the role of the Internet Service Provider (ISP); and how to deal with anonymous defendants. / Private Law / LL. M.

In present-day society more and more personal information is being collected. The nature of the collection has also changed: more sensitive and potentially prejudicial information is collected. The advent of computers and the development of new telecommunications technology, linking computers in networks (principally the Internet) and enabling the transfer of information between computer systems, have made information increasingly important, and boosted the collection and use of personal information. The risks inherent in the processing of personal information are that the data may be inaccurate, incomplete or irrelevant, accessed or disclosed without authorisation, used for a purpose other than that for which they were collected, or destroyed. The processing of personal information poses a threat to a person's right to privacy. The right to identity is also infringed when incorrect or misleading information relating to a person is processed. In response to the problem of the invasion of the right to privacy by the processing of personal information, many countries have adopted "data protection" laws. Since the common law in South Africa does not provide adequate protection for personal data, data protection legislation is also required. This study is undertaken from a private law perspective. However, since privacy is also protected as a fundamental right, the influence of constitutional law on data protection is also considered. After analysing different foreign data protection laws and legal instruments, a set of core data protection principles is identified. In addition, certain general legal principles that should form the basis of any statutory data protection legislation in South Africa are proposed. Following an analysis of the theoretical basis for data protection in South African private law, the current position as regards data protection in South-Africa is analysed and measured against the principles identified. The conclusion arrived at is that the current South African acts can all be considered to be steps in the right direction, but not complete solutions. Further legislation incorporating internationally accepted data protection principles is therefore necessary. The elements that should be incorporated in a data protection regime are discussed. / Jurisprudence / LL. D. (Jurisprudence)

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is a new technology which allows people to identify objects automatically but there is a suspicion that, if people are tracked, their privacy may be infringed. This raises questions about how far this technology is acceptable and how privacy should be protected. It is also initiated a discussion involving a wide range of technical, philosophical, political, social, cultural, and economical aspects. There is also a need to consider the ethical and theological perspectives. This dissertation takes all its relevant directions from a Judeo-Christian theological perspective. On one side the use of technology is considered, and on the other side the value of privacy, its infringements and protection are investigated. According to Jewish and Christian understanding human dignity has to be respected including the right to privacy. As a consequence of this RFID may only used for applications that do not infringe this right. This conclusion, however, is not limited to RFID; it will be relevant for other, future surveillance technologies as well. / Philosophy and Systematic Theology / M. Th. (Theological ethics)

The purpose of this study is to investigate the right to confidentiality in the context of HIV/AIDS through an interdisciplinary lens. This study indicates that whilst confidentiality is important and should be preserved in order to protect persons living with HIV/AIDS against stigmatisation, discrimination and victimisation, this should be balanced by other equally important interests, such as the protection of public health and individual third parties who may be affected by the intentional or negligent infection of others with HIV. As the consideration of the legal issues relating to confidentiality and privacy cannot be divorced from the social context in which HIV/AIDS plays out in South African communities, the study will examine, amongst others, the victimisation, discrimination and stigmatisation experienced by persons living with HIV/AIDS, followed by a critical exploration of the present legal and ethical framework governing privacy and confidentiality, including medical confidentiality, as well as the duty to disclose a positive HIV-status, in the context of HIV/AIDS. Possible limitations on the right to privacy in this context are also examined, which include, amongst others, a consideration of making HIV/AIDS notifiable diseases in South Africa. The study suggests that it is imperative that legal interventions aimed at curbing the spread of HIV will need to be mindful of the unique social, cultural and economic forces that impact on the duty to disclose a positive HIV-status to partners and other affected third parties. Insights gained from philosophical theories relating to Africanism, individualism, communitarianism and utilitarianism are valuable tools in facilitating a clearer understanding of relevant social and cultural factors that keep South African society locked in the present stalemate with regard to the disclosure of HIV status. / Public, Constitutional, and International law / LLD

The adoption of digital health technologies has dramatically changed the healthcare sector landscape and thus generates new opportunities to collect, capture, store, access and retrieve electronic personal health information (ePHI). With the introduction of digital health technologies and the digitisation of health data, an increasing number of hospitals and peripheral health facilities across the globe are transitioning from a paper-based environment to an electronic or paper-light environment. However, the growing use of digital health technologies within healthcare facilities has caused ePHI to be exposed to a variety of threats such as cyber security threats, human-related threats, technological threats and environmental threats. These threats have the potential to cause harm to hospital systems and severely compromise the integrity and confidentiality of ePHI. Because of the growing number of security threats, many hospitals, both private and public, are struggling to secure ePHI due to a lack of robust data security plans, systems and security control measures. The purpose of this study was to explore the security of electronic personal health information in a public hospital in South Africa. The study was underpinned by the interpretivism paradigm with qualitative data collected through semi-structured interviews with purposively selected IT technicians, network controllers’, administrative clerks and records management clerks, and triangulated with document and system analysis. Audio-recorded interviews were transcribed verbatim. Data was coded and analysed using ATLAS.ti, version 8 software, to generate themes and codes within the data, from which findings were derived. The key results revealed that the public hospital is witnessing a deluge of sophisticated cyber threats such as worm viruses, Trojan horses and shortcut viruses. This is compounded by technological threats such as power and system failure, network connection failure, obsolete computers and operating systems, and outdated hospital systems. However, defensive security measures such as data encryption, windows firewall, antivirus software and security audit log system exist in the public hospital for securing and protecting ePHI against threats and breaches. The study recommended the need to implement Intrusion Protection System (IPS), and constantly update the Windows firewall and antivirus program to protect hospital computers and networks against newly released viruses and other malicious codes. In addition to the use of password and username to control access to ePHI in the public hospital, the study recommends that the hospital should put in place authentication mechanisms such as biometric system and Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) system restrict access to ePHI, as well as to upgrade hospital computers and the Patient Administration and Billing (PAAB) System. In the absence of security policy, there is a need for the hospital to put in place a clear written security policy aimed at protecting ePHI. The study concluded that healthcare organisations should upgrade the security of their information systems to protect ePHI stored in databases against unauthorised access, malicious codes and other cyber-attacks. / Information Science / M. Inf. (Information Security)