The dissertation describes the state of private tutoring, its extent and intensity of use during the second stage of basic school, in particular in the last two years. The study is a part of more extensive research into the phenomenon of private tutoring in the Czech Republic, and its results supplement information on the use of private tutoring in primary schools. This dissertation provides an analysis of the use of private tutoring during the second stage of basic schools in the Central Bohemian and Ústí nad Labem regions. The aim is 1) to characterize a student's using private tutoring, in particular individual lessons or group courses (family background, school success, study ambitions, views on private tutoring, etc.), 2) to describe selected types of private tutoring (use rate, subjects, providers, etc.). This consists of quantitative research using a questionnaire survey of 9th grade students from randomly selected primary schools in the Central Bohemian and Ústí nad Labem regions (n = 1 016). The students are at the point between lower and upper secondary education, and they are focusing on the transfer to a upper secondary school, and many of them have to take an entrance exam. These two regions were selected because of their socio-economic differences. The results of the survey confirm...

This study examines socio-economic factors underlying the demand for private tutoring. The analysis utilizes two samples of students from lower- and upper-level secondary schools in Poland based on the PISA 2006 data set. Special attention is paid to channels through which private tutoring may endure socio-economic inequalities, especially in the context of the gender gap in education outcomes. We find that parents' decisions concerning private education are sensitive to student gender, which may raise concerns for policymakers committed to provide equal opportunities and outcomes in education. At the level of gymnasium (lower-level secondary school), female students are more likely to enrol in private tutoring in mathematics than male students. The evidence indicates the opposite with respect to private tutoring in Polish and preparatory courses for the gymnasium final examination. The grade from the final exam does not affect the probability of graduating from gymnasium, but it is used by upper secondary schools for the admission purpose. In upper secondary schools, we find that male students are less likely to participate in private education services than female students. This may be indicative of an increase in power of students in household's decision-making as they graduate from gymnasium. (author's abstract)

This thesis analyzes the pecuniary aspects of education in Turkey. It consists of three essays. The first essay deals with the demand for education, focusing on private tutoring expenditures of households. The study investigates the determinants of private tutoring expenditures of households using a Tobit model as the estimation method. It is found that wealthier households with higher levels of parental education are more likely to participate in private tutoring. The second essay concerns the wage inequality in the male wages in 1994 and 2002. The study found that the differences in the educational attainment levels are a major determinant of wage inequality. However, returns to education declined at each school level from 1994 to 2002. Wage inequality is also found to exist within the same educational categories. The study shows that differences in returns to the same level of education at distinct points of wage distribution became more pronounced in 2002 compared to 1994. Secondary schooling is found to benefit the least able more compared to those positioned in the middle quantiles of ability distribution. The last study in this thesis attempts to elucidate the determinants of self-employment versus wage employment choice and earnings in the two employment states. The study concludes that financial wealth and risk factor are important determinants of self-employment activity. As the educational attainment levels of individuals increase, the likelihood of becoming self-employed decrease. Education increases the earnings of both self-employed and wage earners. However, education returns are higher for the sub-group of wage employees compared to self-employed.

The aim of this thesis is the analysis of communication in private tutoring of the Czech language (especially the analysis of communication of lecturers). The analysis is based on five recordings of private tutoring. The thesis in the theoretical part summarizes the existing knowledge about private tutoring and about communication in school, such as verbal and nonverbal communication of teachers and of students or typical communication structure used in school education. In the practical part, the thesis analyzes the communication in private tutoring in the Czech language based on recordings of lecturers and their students visiting the second primary school level or similar years of multi-year grammar school. The thesis according to the analyzed material describes verbal and nonverbal communication of lecturers and students in private tutoring, then focuses on communication structure in private tutoring, i. e. questions of lecturers, student answers and feedback of lecturers. Knowledge about communication in private tutoring is then compared with communication in school. In the end, the thesis focuses on the advantages and disadvantages of online form of private tutoring based on analyzed recordings and interviews with lecturers.

Private tutoring is prevalent in Egypt and other developing countries. Nonetheless, the literature on tutoring is still small. The purpose of the first paper in this thesis is to gain an understanding of the determinants of tutoring in Egypt using micro-level data and to investigate whether gender bias exists in tutoring decisions. It is expected that since labor market outcomes are less favorable to girls and gender disparities are present in educational investments in general, parents would be less willing to invest in tutoring for girls. Surprisingly, however, no gender bias is detected with respect to tutoring. The absence of bias is a puzzling finding. Tutoring is used to enhance children's education performance and give them a competitive edge. Socioeconomic level was found to be an important predictor of tutoring investment in the first paper. This poses equity concerns. Therefore, it is important to examine whether tutoring pays off in terms of better educational outcomes. The literature on tutoring effects mostly does not take into account the potential endogeneity of tutoring. I estimate the effect of taking tutoring on the likelihood of joining the secondary level stream that leads to university in the second paper of the thesis. I use a proxy for the supply of tutors as an instrument for taking tutoring. Without instrumenting, tutoring has a statistically significant positive effect. After introducing the instrumental variable, this effect disappears. However, the estimate of the tutoring coefficient is imprecise and there is some evidence that the instrument variable does not have sufficient power to get a reliable estimate of the tutoring effect. The expectation of better marriage prospects for an educated woman may influence parental educational investment decisions and this can be the answer to the puzzle of apparently equal tutoring investment by gender as found in the first paper of the thesis. The third paper examines how female education improves marriage characteristics in Egypt. Findings show that highly educated women are more likely to marry a highly educated husband. They are also more likely to man-y a husband with a high pre-marital wealth level and to live independently upon marriage. Higher levels of female education are negatively associated with marrying a relative. Female education plays an insignificant role with respect to the share of marriage costs borne by a bride and her family. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Der Autor versucht mit dieser kurzen Einführung eine Übersicht über den Stand der Forschung zu einem Thema zu geben, das in der Forschung bisher noch nicht ausreichend berücksichtigt wurde: der außerschulischen, privatwirtschaftlich organisierten Zusatzbildung, der sogenannten Shadow Education. Der Fokus der Arbeit richtet sich dabei auf die Länder Japan, welches bereits seit den 1970er Jahren ein System außerschulischer Bildungsinstitutionen besitzt, dessen Einfluss auf den Bildungserwerb junger Menschen so stark ist wie in kaum einem anderen Land, und Deutschland, dessen Schattenbildungs- oder Nachhilfesystem noch keinen derartig starken Einfluss ausübt, jedoch in den vergangenen Jahren steten Zuwachs verzeichnen konnte. Interessierten soll dieser Einblick durch die umfangreiche Bibliographie eine Hilfe bei der Recherche zu diesem Thema bieten. / With this short introduction the author tries to provide an overview about the status of research about a theme that has not been sufficiently taken into consideration by researchers yet: the out-of-school, privately organized remedial education or private tutoring, the so called shadow education. Hereby this work focuses on the countries Japan and Germany. While in Japan a system of shadow education exists for decades, which shall lead the Japanese youth to superior results compared to compulsory school education, a comparable influence of institutionalized private tutoring can’t be found in Germany so far. This work shall provide a help to those who want to research about this theme, especially through its comprehensive bibliography.

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一國如在教育上過度強調以學業為導向，就會出現具有雙刃劍角色的補習現象通常會，一方面幫助學生在學術能力測驗中取得高成就，另一方面限制了學生的創造性發展。部分學生因為在普通學校中無法取得足夠的知識和技能，故而轉向補習班為測驗做準備。尤其在英語科目成為主要考核科目之後，補習班的項目也因此更加多元。本研究旨在關注台灣補習教育何以在1990年代教改之後，依然擴張的現況，補習班如何從日常學習的補充角色，轉向台灣中學生教育中的必要部分。研究者針對補習班英語教學方法進行探討，透過對補習班經營者、教師和補習學生進行深度訪談，來瞭解他們的相關經驗。研究結果發現，補習班經營者意透多元與另類等途徑，聘請英語教師，來提升教學的創意。至於教師的訪談發現，英語教師通過嘗試新的教學方法來幫助學生在學業方面取得更好的成績，但是這種方式存在一定的局限性。本研究印一步發現補習班教師包括來自英語國家的和非英語國家，即使某些補習班老師並未取得教師資格證書，但在學生看來比一般學校的英語任課老師更加優秀。值得注意的是，大多數學生認為補習班的教學方法與一般學校相差無幾，但是學生滿意度明顯高於主流學校英語教師。本研究進一步確認補習班因商業利益等考量，許多訊息備受保密，使得研究者難以獲得一套完整的教學方法和學生經驗。 / In an academically oriented nation, there is a realization that attending a cram school can be double-edged, as they often offer great outcomes in students’ academic achievements especially with their test scores but they can also limit students’ creative development. Unable to obtain sufficient knowledge and skills for tests in mainstream schools, students have commonly turned to cram schools for examination preparation. Educational reforms enforcing English as a main examination subject greatly diversified the possibilities for tutoring and in fact helped cram schools’ diversification. The study focuses on the phenomenon of the influx of cram schools, and how it’s no longer a supplement, but instead a necessity of a secondary student’s education in Taiwan. This study starts with investigating the cram school phenomenon, as well as to discuss the teaching methods used in English classes. Finally, data has been collected through in-depth interviews among cram school owners, teachers and former attendees to look at their experience in cram school . The results of the study shows that the cram school owners approved the necessity to enhance creative teaching through alternative methods so as hiring teachers with supplementary talents. The teacher interviews revealed that trying new approaches to teaching have helped students achieve better outcomes academically, but sometimes only to a certain extent that is why cram schools can be double-edged. The paradox of this study is the cram school teachers’ qualifications for both native and English speakers. In fact, even though they may not have any teaching qualifications, cram school teachers are described by students as being better teachers compared to the ones in regular school. Significantly, the study discovered that a majority of students find cram school teaching methods in general so as the overall experience to be more satisfactory than with mainstream school The study finally showed that gaining information about cram schooling can be difficult as there is some secrecy surrounding it. This prevented the researcher from gaining a complete picture of cram school teaching methods and students’ experience.

The creation of a community of practice of tutors--a shared practice among a group of people who share the same domain--enables second-language learners to facilitate their acquisition of English by embracing new learning strategies while they learn the target language. The community of tutors’ perspective allows for the incorporation of the individual’s particular second-language-acquisition needs and goals. This presentation presents a proposed study that took place at the Yasuda Center at California State University, San Bernardino in the summer of 2015. Students in the English Language Program housed in the College of Extended Learning were asked to participate in tutoring sessions offered by tutors who participated in a community of tutors. Tutors embraced new teaching strategies that they acquired through participating within a community of practice, sharing their background knowledge and teaching experience, and demonstrating new teaching techniques to each other by using collaborative and hybrid strategies during activities embedded in a rich learning context. The provision of community of practice for tutors in the English Language Program enabled learners to develop meaning-making and communication skills as well as language and literacy skills to address the informational and problem-solving needs of their tasks and assignments.

L’essor fulgurant du soutien scolaire privé dans le monde témoigne d’une évolution des systèmes scolaires intégrant de plus en plus la dimension « marchande » de l’éducation. Dans cette thèse, nous présentons le cas du Japon, pays dans lequel cette tendance est très marquée, en nous intéressant notamment à la manière dont s’articule la pratique du soutien scolaire privé dans les gakushû juku et les yobikô avec la scolarisation à l’école – obligatoire au Japon – à travers les choix des familles et des individus. Notre travail, qui s’appuie principalement sur des données empiriques quantitatives et qualitatives de première et de seconde main, montre que le recours au soutien scolaire privé est devenu pour les familles un recours indispensable en complément de l’école, et cela de façon plus prononcée depuis les années 1990 qui ont marqué la mise en place de réformes néolibérales touchant les différents étages du système éducatif. Parallèlement à cette intégration progressive du soutien scolaire privé dans le système scolaire, nous mettons en évidence l’apparition depuis les années 2000 d’un phénomène de « jukuisation » des écoles, c’est-à-dire la transformation de celles-ci en un modèle marchand, qui se manifeste entre autres par une coopération de plus en plus forte entre les écoles et les entreprises de soutien scolaire privé. / The boom in shadow education worldwide shows an evolution in school systems to increasingly incorporate the commercial side of education. This thesis will explore the case of Japan, where this tendency is extremely marked, with a particular focus on the way private tutoring at gakushû juku and yobikô is interlocked with formal schooling – compulsory in Japan – through the choices made by families and individuals.My research, which draws mainly on first- and second-hand qualitative and quantitative data, shows that private tutoring has become essential for families as a complement to formal schooling. This is especially true since the 1990s, which saw neoliberal reforms implemented throughout the education system.Alongside this gradual integration of private tutoring into the education system, I highlight the appearance in recent years of a phenomenon that could be described as the « jukuization » of schools, in other words, the transformation of mainstream schools into a commercial model, notably via increasingly close cooperation between schools and private tutoring firms.