A variety of radiation sources exist at the Department of Radiology and the Department of Nuclear Medicine at Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge. Radiation sources can also be found in areas outside of these departments due to the wide use of mobile xray machines and fluoroscopic c-arm equipment and also due to the movement of patients that have received diagnostic or therapeutic doses of radionuclides. In a proposal for a new legislation from the Swedish Radiation Protection Authority (SSI), which was later issued as legislation SSI FS 2005:6, the effective doses of the general public from a practice using ionising radiation need to be kept below stated limit of 0.1 mSv/year. This project was performed to verify the dose limit for individuals of the general public in the above mentioned practices. Long-term measurements with TL-dosimeters were utilised to carry out the environmental monitoring of the areas throughout the Departments of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine. To assess the contribution of ionising radiation from rooms housing mobile fluoroscopic c-arm equipment to surrounding areas, a tissue equivalent phantom of size (30×30×20 cm3) was employed to simulate a patient and the scattered radiation was monitored by using area monitors, such as portable proportional counters. The annual effective doses were calculated in terms of personal dose equivalent as well as ambient dose equivalent monitored using TL-dosimeters and area monitors, respectively. The stated limit of 0.1 mSv/year to the general public was verified by risk analysis. An attempt to create a method for determining the amount of radiation shielding in terms of lead equivalence in walls, doors, protective glasses of manoeuvre rooms and cupboards of diagnostic x-ray labs was also performed using a radiation point source of 99mTc and a NaI scintillation detector. Depending on the accuracy in the measurements the amount of lead deviated slightly from the expected 2 mm value based on the former legislation SSI FS 1991:1.

Transboundary protected areas are a fairly recent concept that have been increasing in popularity and are increasingly being integrated into large international organizations’ environmental policy making. This essay examines the phenomena through the cooperation between two national parks, Parc National des Pyrénées in France and Parque Nacional Ordesa Monte Perdido in Spain. The theoretical framework used in this essay is based upon border theory, focusing on the different factors that influence the behavior of the border dweller and how the different social conceptions of nature influence the way it is managed. The results in this study result from researching published and private documents from the national parks and interviews carried out with staff from the park administrations from both countries. The collaboration between these two national parks dates back twenty years and the cooperation has been carried out in many small projects. Historical ties between the villages in the border region, which also shares a common culture and lingual heritage, have inspired the cooperation. There are also economical benefits that influence the collaboration, such as the European Union’s regional policy that provides funds for transboundary cooperation. A mutual world heritage site, Pyrénées – Mont Perdu, is also situated within the parks’ territories, which should be managed conjointly by the national parks. However, an in-depth and well-integrated cooperation has not been found, as difference in the nature and how the organizations themselves are managed and regulated has generated a long and complicated course for decisions regarding cooperation. It appears that even if nature itself might be boundless, the national jurisdictions that prevail over nature are clearly adhered to and there are no available transboundary structures designed to handle a cooperation of this kind. / Gränsöverskridande naturvård är ett relativt nytt koncept som alltmer ökat i popularitet och även inlemmats i flera stora internationella organisationers naturvårdspolicy. Denna uppsats syftar till att undersöka gränsöverskridande naturvård mellan två angränsande nationalparker, Parc National des Pyrénées i Frankrike och Parque Nacional Ordesa Monte Perdido i Spanien. Uppsatsen har utgått ifrån gränsteoretiska utgångspunkter i form av vilka faktorer som påverkar gränsbeteendet och med särskilt fokus på hur föreställningar om naturen påverkar hur denna förvaltas. Samarbetet har granskats genom dokument publicerade av parkerna samt genom intervjuer med personal i de båda parkerna. Nationalparkerna har under drygt tjugo år haft en viss samverkan som konkretiserats genom flera småskaliga projekt. Samarbetet har inspirerats av en historisk samverkan mellan byarna i gränsregionen som har ett gemensamt språk och kulturarv samt ekonomiska incitament i form av den Europeiska Unionens stöd för samverkan mellan gränsregioner. Inom nationalparkernas område återfinns även ett gemensamt världsarv, Pyrénées – Mont Perdu, som skall förvaltas av nationalparkerna tillsammans. Studien visar dock att en fördjupad samverkan mellan parkerna inte har kunnats implementeras i praktiken, eftersom naturen förvaltas och regleras på olika sätt i de båda nationalparkerna. Skillnader mellan Parc National des Pyrénées och Parque Nacional Ordesas förvaltningsstruktur och administrationssätt gör att beslutsvägen för samarbetsfrågor blir lång och komplicerad. Även om naturen själv är gränslös, visar studien att de bestämmelser som råder över den, är starkt bundna till den nationella organisationsformen och att det i nuläget inte finns någon gränsöverskridande struktur som kan hantera frågor av detta slag.

Parks and protected areas are long-regarded as effective measures for conservation of biodiversity. More recently, they are also recognized as a means to provide social and economic benefits and indefinite ecological and environmental services, particularly to local communities. Historically, parks and protected areas have been managed through an exclusive model, whereby local communities are regarded as a threat to biodiversity preservation. More recently, this model is being replaced by an inclusive model which regards local communities as important stakeholders and partners in sustainable resource management. Like other developing countries of the world, Pakistan is switching to the inclusive model, mostly under the influence and pressure of the world community and external donors. This thesis focuses on the Ayubia National Park (ANP) in Pakistan. This park is managed by the provincial government of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province through the Wildlife Department. At the same time, the park falls within the jurisdiction of the Forest Department by virtue of its being located within reserve forest. Until 1996, the traditional exclusive conservation model was predominant. Under the influence of the European Union (EU) and IUCN – The World Conservation Union – the inclusive approach has been tested in the park since 1996. Accordingly, the first park management plan was prepared with the active collaboration of all local communities, the WWF-Pakistan, and the Forest and Wildlife Departments. The planning document was designed to promote co-management and incorporate the viewpoints of all the local communities in park management. Following termination of EU funding, the plan was implemented, but without active involvement of the local communities. Evidence presented in this thesis shows that, due to strict management in line with the traditional exclusive conservation model, park resources have improved to a certain extent. However, failure in implementing the mutually agreed planning document has resulted in local communities developing serious mistrust against the Wildlife Department. This thesis suggests that short-term improvements in park resources mask the persistent problems of poor governance in the study area. The thesis shows that marked differences between the Forest and Wildlife Departments, and between local communities and the concerned government agencies provide a poor foundation for long-term sustainable resource management. Thus ineffective governance lies at the heart of resource management problems within the park. The thesis recommends that in order to effectively address the current park-people conflicts a state-centric co-management model should be pursued. Such a hybrid model will have the strengths of both the exclusive and inclusive models. The thesis further presents a framework focusing on effective environmental governance, effective management and effective planning. Importantly, the thesis argues that for effective environmental governance to be realized, the management approach must be place-based and site-specific. Thus, the thesis recommends both micro and macro level environmental governance measures. Such measures can be undertaken through proper institutional reforms that are undertaken at three distinct levels: legislative reforms, educational reforms and organizational reforms.

Sacred sites in Ysyk-Köl area of Kyrgyzstan represent areas of land and bodies of water which are spiritually and culturally meaningful for local people. The present study mapped about 130 sacred sites, which are conserved-through-use by local communities and represent traditional model of conservation. The entire territory of Ysyk-Köl region is a formal protected area as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. Thus, sacred sites, as traditional model of community conserved area, are embedded in the formal government-run Biosphere Reserve. The study scrutinizes how these two models of conservation (sacred sites and the Biosphere Reserve) co-exist in the same territory and interact with each other. Results indicate that these two models are parallel. However, recognition of sacred sites can improve formal conservation by: a) providing a complementary culture-based set of incentives for conservation, b) fostering a biocultural approach, and c) serving as a communication hub for YKBR managers and local communities. / February 2016

Magistro baigiamajame darbe išanalizuota ir įvertinta saugomų teritorijų ir miškų ūkio sistemų dermė valdant nacionalinių parkų valstybinius miškus, įvardintos kylančios problemos bei pateikti pasiūlymai dėl jų sprendimo būdų. Pirmoje darbo dalyje teoriniu aspektu tiriama Lietuvos ir užsienio šalių miškingų saugomų teritorijų ir miškų ūkio sektoriaus esančio saugomose teritorijose teisinė, administracinė dermė, analizuojami buvę, esami miškų valdymo modeliai ir praktika. Antrojoje darbo dalyje pateikiamas pirmą kartą Lietuvoje praktiškai taikytas IUCN-WCPA saugomų teritorijų tvarkymo efektyvumo vertinimo įrankis (metodika) vertinat miškų tvarkymo efektyvumą bei atlikto tyrimo apimtis. Trečiojoje darbo dalyje pateikiamos Dzūkijos, Kuršių nerijos nacionalinių ir Trakų istorinio nacionalinio parko miškams kylančios grėsmės, miškų šiuose parkuose tvarkymo efektyvumo vertinimas procentine išraiška bei silpnieji ir stiprieji valdymo elementai. Lietuvos saugomų teritorijų ir miškų ūkio veiklos analizė atlikta SSGG principu, pateikti konkretūs pasiūlymai sprendžiant saugomų teritorijų ir miškininkystės klausimus atsižvelgiant į tvarios miškininkystės principus. / This MA thesis is the analysis and evaluation of the governmental synergy between the protected areas and the forestry in the management of the national parks. The main problems and the possible solutions are discussed. The first section of the thesis is the theoretical analysis of legal and administrational synergy in the protected forest areas and forestry in Lithuania and abroad, the analysis of past and current administrative models and their practice is made. The second section includes the analysis of the IUCN-WCPA protected areas management effectiveness tracking tool that is applied in Lithuania for the first time. The third section is the discussion of the arising environmental threats to the forests in the national parks of Dzukija, Kursiu nerija, and Trakai historical national park, the effectiveness of the management is provided in percentage as well as the week and strong key points are discussed. The analysis of the Lithuanian protected areas and forestry is made based on SSGG theory, suggestions made for solving the issues of the protected areas and forestry are based on the stable forestry principles.

Cougars (Puma concolor) are a growing concern for managers of Pacific Rim National Park Reserve and Clayoquot Sound UNESCO Biosphere Reserve on the west coast of Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Since the mid-1990s, the frequency and intensity of human-cougar interactions have dramatically increased. Concurrently, these areas have become increasingly popular for human activities. The primary goal of my study was to recommend ways to reduce the potential risk of human-cougar interactions to ensure long-term conservation of cougars while minimizing risks to visitor safety. To achieve this goal, I examined the use of two noninvasive approaches. First, during 2005-2006, I compared the rate of detection, cost and time required for a detector dog, sign surveys, scented rub pads and remotely triggered cameras to detect cougars in coastal temperate rainforests. Sign surveys were the most effective method due to the availability of good tracking substrate throughout the study areas. Cameras were also practical because they could be used by less skilled personnel and had the capacity to detect several species of wildlife. Second, I demonstrated the utility of pre-existing data by analysing the spatiotemporal trends of human-cougar interactions on the West Coast Trail from 1993-2006. My results showed a moderate increase of reported human-cougar interactions (n = 157) despite a steady decline in hiker numbers across these years. I identified four areas where activities of people and cougars repeatedly overlapped (hotspots). In general, interaction locations were primarily associated with high human activity: near campsites and landscape characteristics that were associated with campsites (i.e., beaches and freshwater drainages >20 m wide). However, the distribution of hotspots suggests that the co-occurrence of human-use areas (e.g., campsites) and important travel routes (e.g., freshwater drainages and logging roads) used by cougars may increase the likelihood of interactions. These findings will allow protected area managers to proactively mitigate human-cougar conflict through visitor education and protocols that reduce people and cougars from intersecting in space and time.

Understanding the relationships between biodiversity and climate is essential for predicting the impact of climate change on broad-scale landscape processes. Utilizing indirect indicators of biodiversity derived from remotely sensed imagery, we present an approach to forecast shifts in the spatial distribution of biodiversity. Indirect indicators, such as remotely sensed plant productivity metrics, representing landscape seasonality, minimum growth, and total greenness have been linked to species richness over broad spatial scales, providing unique capacity for biodiversity modeling. Our goal is to map future spatial distributions of plant productivity metrics based on expected climate change and to quantify anticipated change to park habitat in British Columbia. Using an archival dataset sourced from the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) satellite from the years 1987 to 2007 at 1km spatial resolution, corresponding historical climate data, and regression tree modeling, we developed regional models of the relationships between climate and annual productivity growth. Historical interconnections between climate and annual productivity were coupled with three climate change scenarios modeled by the Canadian Centre for Climate Modeling and Analysis (CCCma) to predict and map productivity components to the year 2065. Results indicate we can expect a warmer and wetter environment, which may lead to increased productivity in the north and higher elevations. Overall, seasonality is expected to decrease and greenness productivity metrics are expected to increase. The Coastal Mountains and high elevation edge habitats across British Columbia are forecasted to experience the greatest amount of change. In the future, protected areas may have potential higher greenness and lower seasonality as represented by indirect biodiversity indicators. The predictive model highlights potential gaps in protection along the central interior and Rocky Mountains. Protected areas are expected to experience the greatest change with indirect indicators located along mountainous elevations of British Columbia. Our indirect indicator approach to predict change in biodiversity provides resource managers with information to mitigate and adapt to future habitat dynamics. Spatially specific recommendations from our dataset provide information necessary for management. For instance, knowing there is a projected depletion of habitat representation in the East Rocky Mountains, sensitive species in the threatened Mountain Hemlock ecozone, or preservation of rare habitats in the decreasing greenness of the southern interior region is essential information for managers tasked with long term biodiversity conservation. Forecasting productivity levels, linked to the distribution of species richness, presents a novel approach for understanding the future implications of climate change on broad scale biodiversity. / Graduate

Parks and protected areas are long-regarded as effective measures for conservation of biodiversity. More recently, they are also recognized as a means to provide social and economic benefits and indefinite ecological and environmental services, particularly to local communities. Historically, parks and protected areas have been managed through an exclusive model, whereby local communities are regarded as a threat to biodiversity preservation. More recently, this model is being replaced by an inclusive model which regards local communities as important stakeholders and partners in sustainable resource management. Like other developing countries of the world, Pakistan is switching to the inclusive model, mostly under the influence and pressure of the world community and external donors. This thesis focuses on the Ayubia National Park (ANP) in Pakistan. This park is managed by the provincial government of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province through the Wildlife Department. At the same time, the park falls within the jurisdiction of the Forest Department by virtue of its being located within reserve forest. Until 1996, the traditional exclusive conservation model was predominant. Under the influence of the European Union (EU) and IUCN – The World Conservation Union – the inclusive approach has been tested in the park since 1996. Accordingly, the first park management plan was prepared with the active collaboration of all local communities, the WWF-Pakistan, and the Forest and Wildlife Departments. The planning document was designed to promote co-management and incorporate the viewpoints of all the local communities in park management. Following termination of EU funding, the plan was implemented, but without active involvement of the local communities. Evidence presented in this thesis shows that, due to strict management in line with the traditional exclusive conservation model, park resources have improved to a certain extent. However, failure in implementing the mutually agreed planning document has resulted in local communities developing serious mistrust against the Wildlife Department. This thesis suggests that short-term improvements in park resources mask the persistent problems of poor governance in the study area. The thesis shows that marked differences between the Forest and Wildlife Departments, and between local communities and the concerned government agencies provide a poor foundation for long-term sustainable resource management. Thus ineffective governance lies at the heart of resource management problems within the park. The thesis recommends that in order to effectively address the current park-people conflicts a state-centric co-management model should be pursued. Such a hybrid model will have the strengths of both the exclusive and inclusive models. The thesis further presents a framework focusing on effective environmental governance, effective management and effective planning. Importantly, the thesis argues that for effective environmental governance to be realized, the management approach must be place-based and site-specific. Thus, the thesis recommends both micro and macro level environmental governance measures. Such measures can be undertaken through proper institutional reforms that are undertaken at three distinct levels: legislative reforms, educational reforms and organizational reforms.

Chronic anthropogenic disturbance has left many marine systems at risk of degrading into undesirable states. In many cases, ecosystem shifts are triggered by catastrophic disturbance events that are beyond the control of local management, such as coral bleaching or cyclones. Recognition of this risk has instigated what has been referred to as a new paradigm for marine stewardship; managing areas with the explicit goal of maintaining ecosystem resilience. Despite this, there has been little synthetic influence of resilience theory on marine conservation planning. This thesis focuses on how to make good decisions regarding the selection of marine protected areas (MPAs), in the face of catastrophic disturbance events and for the conservation of highly dynamic marine systems. Large-scale catastrophic events, although rare, lie generally beyond the control of local management and can prevent marine reserves from achieving biodiversity outcomes. In Chapter 2, I formulate a new conservation planning problem that aims to minimize the probability of missing marine conservation targets as result of catastrophic events. To illustrate this approach, I address the problem of minimizing the impact of large scale coral bleaching events on a reserve system for the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. By explicitly considering the threat of catastrophic bleaching as part of the reserve design problem, it was possible to substantially improve the likely persistence of coral reefs within reserve networks, for a negligible increase in reserve cost. The results also demonstrate that simply aiming to protect the reefs at lowest risk of catastrophic bleaching does not necessarily lead to the best conservation outcomes. It is thought that recovery of marine habitats from uncontrollable disturbance may be faster in marine reserves than in unprotected habitats. But which marine habitats should be protected, those areas at greatest risk or those at least risk? In Chapter 3, I define this problem mathematically for two alternate conservation objectives and determine under which conditions each of the different protection strategies are optimal. With regard to the risk of uncontrollable disturbance, the optimal protection strategy depends on both the conservation objective and the expected rate of habitat recovery inside and outside protected areas. I illustrate this decision making with an example of cyclone disturbance of coral reefs on Australia’s Great Barrier Reef. An adequate consideration of risk can indicate surprising routes to conservation success. The resilience of coral reef systems is closely linked to the presence of grazing herbivores. Although herbivore populations are generally protected through permanent static reserves, the benefits of protection are dynamic in both time and space. Periodically moving protection between reefs allows access to the greatest potential benefits of reservation and can help address social reluctance to permanently close areas. Using analytic methods to solve a theoretical case study, I demonstrate that periodically rotating protection around a reef system can lead to greater average reef resilience than under static protection, but only if the overall level of reservation is high enough or the rotation does not include all reefs in the system. The past ten years have seen increasing enthusiasm for MPAs as a tool for pelagic conservation. However, numerous criticisms have been levelled against the use of place-based management in such a dynamic environment. Evidence, tools and information to address these criticisms and establish the feasibility and relevance of pelagic MPAs are dispersed across the conservation, oceanography and fisheries management literature. In Chapter 5, I review this information and present a synthetic framework for systematic planning of pelagic MPAs. Although many of the lessons learned so far about MPA design in coastal systems can be transferred to pelagic systems, there are some fundamental differences and new challenges involved in the conservation of patchy and highly dynamic resources. These challenges are very much at the leading edge of new conservation science and are likely to stimulate solutions with impact far beyond the design of pelagic MPAs.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Wollongong, 2008. / Typescript. CD-ROM contains full thesis, appendix II database and abstract. Includes bibliographical references: p. 169-198.