Les activités de planification, et plus précisément l’ordonnancement, jouent un rôle majeur dans l’équilibre et l’efficience des systèmes de travail. L’ordonnancement est considéré comme un problème complexe ; et parmi les facteurs de complexité, l’incertitude représente une dimension centrale. Bien que de nombreux outils automatiques ou d’aide à la décision aient été conçus pour faciliter l’ordonnancement, la place de l’opérateur humain demeure primordiale. Paradoxalement, peu de travaux se sont intéressés à l’activité cognitive de l’ordonnanceur. Cette thèse de doctorat en ergonomie vise à étudier les processus cognitifs mis en œuvre par l’ordonnanceur, avec un intérêt particulier pour les stratégies de gestion de l’incertitude.Après la proposition d’une typologie des situations d’ordonnancement et d’une méthode d’analyse de l’activité, deux situations d’ordonnancement sous incertitude ont été étudiées : l’organisation des tournées dans le Transport Routier de Marchandises (TRM) et l’ordonnancement dans les Services de Soins Infirmiers à Domicile (SSIAD). Cette approche écologique a permis d’élaborer des modèles permettant de mieux appréhender les aspects humains de l’ordonnancement et de cerner les stratégies de gestion de l’incertitude. Des contributions à la fois théoriques, méthodologiques et pratiques seront issues de cette thèse. La combinaison de ces travaux permet d’enrichir la réflexion quant à l’optimisation de la collaboration Homme-Machine. / Planning processes, especially, scheduling play a major role in work systems stability and efficiency. Scheduling is regarded as a complex problem; among complexity factors, uncertainty represent a central dimension. Although numerous automated tools or decision support systems have already been designed to help operators schedule their activities. The part played by said operators remains primordial. Paradoxically, few researches were concerned by the cognitive activity of the scheduler. This PhD thesis in human factors aims at studying those cognitive processes, with a specific interest in uncertainty management strategies.After exposing a scheduling situations typology and a method for activity analysis, we presented two scheduling situations with high uncertainty factors to study: organization of rounds in Road Freight Transports (RFT) and scheduling in Visiting Nurse Agencies (VNAs). This ecological approach allowed for a better understanding of the human aspects of scheduling and the detection of uncertainty management strategies. This work contributes to widen the debate around the optimisation of Man-Machine collaboration.

Effective teacher questioning during whole group instruction remains an important pedagogy in science education, especially the importance of helping novice teachers to guide student thinking using effective questions. This study examined how novice secondary science teachers’ understand the relationship between student thinking and teacher questioning. The sample was seven novice secondary science teachers’ enrolled in the University of Central Florida’s job embedded Resident Teacher Professional Preparation Program (RTP3 ). All participants received instruction and guided practice with the use of questions to elicit, probe, and challenge student ideas in the secondary science pedagogy class. Participants completed a questionnaire describing their teaching experience and science content knowledge. The primary data were think aloud interviews describing their thinking while observing two science instruction videos. Protocols, critical incident interviews, and field notes were transcribed and coded for analysis. Descriptive codes identified properly classified question types and the purpose or value of questions, student thinking, and student reaction to teacher questions. Pattern codes identified student engagement, feedback, wait time, and communication patterns. The think aloud used in this study provided insight into what the participants were thinking about the purposes of questions to elicit, probe, and challenge student ideas and gave insight into the decision process. Evidence from the protocol analysis provided insight about what the participants were thinking about the decisions made when attending to teacher questions and student thinking. All seven participants identified question types using language suggesting they understood the differences, but at a naïve level. Although participants used the iii correct language to show understanding of the question types, they had a fairly naïve understanding of the pedagogical purpose of the questions. This was especially true of the questions to elicit student ideas, but perhaps less true of the probing and challenging questions. The participants had more of a ritualistic understanding of the questions to elicit student ideas; they noticed them but perhaps did not have a deep understanding of this question type. Analyses of this study also revealed novice teachers learning is framed by the priorities of the public school system. All participants attended to teacher instruction, especially wait time and student engagement, while a few participants focused on feedback, praise, and higher- and lower-order questions. This study suggested school culture and the way teachers are now assessed may scaffold and support these teachers to have a more nuanced and sophisticated understanding of questioning and student thinking than has previously been reported for novice/beginning teachers. While some aspects of school culture and assessment may be problematic- i.e. wait time, feedback, praise, higher-order questions, etc.-on the whole it seems to be leading them in the right direction.

This study examined how intermediate elementary students' mathematics and science background knowledge affected their interpretation of line graphs and how their interpretations were affected by graph question levels. A purposive sample of 14 6th-grade students engaged in think aloud interviews (Ericsson & Simon, 1993) while completing an excerpted Test of Graphing in Science (TOGS) (McKenzie & Padilla, 1986). Hand gestures were video recorded. Student performance on the TOGS was assessed using an assessment rubric created from previously cited factors affecting students' graphing ability. Factors were categorized using Bertin's (1983) three graph question levels. The assessment rubric was validated by Padilla and a veteran mathematics and science teacher. Observational notes were also collected. Data were analyzed using Roth and Bowen's semiotic process of reading graphs (2001). Key findings from this analysis included differences in the use of heuristics, self-generated questions, science knowledge, and self-motivation. Students with higher prior achievement used a greater number and variety of heuristics and more often chose appropriate heuristics. They also monitored their understanding of the question and the adequacy of their strategy and answer by asking themselves questions. Most used their science knowledge spontaneously to check their understanding of the question and the adequacy of their answers. Students with lower and moderate prior achievement favored one heuristic even when it was not useful for answering the question and rarely asked their own questions. In some cases, if students with lower prior achievement had thought about their answers in the context of their science knowledge, they would have been able to recognize their errors. One student with lower prior achievement motivated herself when she thought the questions were too difficult. In addition, students answered the TOGS in one of three ways: as if they were mathematics word problems, science data to be analyzed, or they were confused and had to guess. A second set of findings corroborated how science background knowledge affected graph interpretation: correct science knowledge supported students' reasoning, but it was not necessary to answer any question correctly; correct science knowledge could not compensate for incomplete mathematics knowledge; and incorrect science knowledge often distracted students when they tried to use it while answering a question. Finally, using Roth and Bowen's (2001) two-stage semiotic model of reading graphs, representative vignettes showed emerging patterns from the study. This study added to our understanding of the role of science content knowledge during line graph interpretation, highlighted the importance of heuristics and mathematics procedural knowledge, and documented the importance of perception attentions, motivation, and students' self-generated questions. Recommendations were made for future research in line graph interpretation in mathematics and science education and for improving instruction in this area.

This thesis is focused on exploring marking and grading in higher education. Using a phenomenological approach 26 interviews were undertaken with a heterogeneous sample of health academics at four universities. The sample included novice lecturers with two years or less experience in the academy to those with academic careers spanning more than 20 years. Two interview methods were utilised, Protocol Analysis (PA) and Cognitive Interviewing (CI). Protocol Analysis enables close contact with the marking and grading, in the moment, whilst Cognitive Interviewing is a novel method for exploring lecturer practices in higher education. Analysis was completed by applying a modified framework analysis to both data sets, facilitating synthesis of the two series of research findings. A wealth of rich data was gathered which resulted in close exploration of marking and grading practices, with the production of corroboratory evidence for issues previously identified on these phenomena. Close connection as an insider practitioner researcher has enabled close exploration and the gaining of new insights into practice, resulting in the identification of previously unexplored areas. My original contributions to knowledge in this area are: identifying the messiness of marking and grading and troublesome knowledge, the ‘rubric paradox’, importance of communities of practice, dual identity of health academics, working environments, experience recast as expertise, and using current interview techniques (PA and CI) for supporting continuing professional development. This thesis develops these themes suggesting ways in which they could impact upon contemporary marking and grading practice.

One of the key determinants of an organization’s success is its ability to adapt to marketplace change. Given this reality, how do organizations survive or even thrive in today’s dynamic markets? The answer to this question is highly related to the adaptability of one of the organization’s key resource: its employees. Indeed, the central component of an organization’s success will depend on its ability to drive changes in the mental models of individual employees. Moreover, a critical facilitator of that will be the development of decision support tools that support change of those mental models. In response to this need there has been a tremendous growth in business analytic decision support tools, estimated to reach almost $200 billion in sales by 2019. The premise of this research is that these decision support tools are ill-suited to support true mental model change because they have focused on a feedback-enabled view and generally lack a predictive (feedforward-enabled) view of the likely outcomes of the decision. The purpose of this research is to study how changes in mental models can be facilitated through this feedforward mechanisms within the DSS tool. This research used a mixed method approach, leveraging the strengths of quantitative and qualitative research methodologies, to study this research question. The research showed that the feedforward-enabled DSS tool did create more mental model change and alignment (versus an ideal solution) compared to the control. The feedforward enabled tool also produced better alignment than the feedback-enabled decision support tool. In fact, the feedback-enabled decision support was shown to result in a poorer alignment with the ideal solution. This paper concludes by suggesting five areas for future research. / Business Administration/Management Information Systems

Requirements are features or attributes which we discover at the initial stage of building a product. Requirements describe the system functionality that satisfies customer needs. An incomplete and inconsistent requirement of the project leads to exceeding cost or devastating the project. So there should be a process for obtaining sufficient, accurate and refining requirements such a process is known as requirement elicitation. Software requirement elicitation process is regarded as one of the most important parts of software development. During this stage it is decided precisely what should be built. There are many requirements elicitation techniques however selecting the appropriate technique according to the nature of the project is important for the successful development of the project. Traditional software development and agile approaches to requirements elicitation are suitable in their own context. With agile approaches a high-level, low formal form of requirement specification is produced and the team is fully prepared to respond unavoidable changes in these requirements. On the other hand in traditional approach project could be done more satisfactory with a plan driven well documented specification. Agile processes introduced their most broadly applicable technique with user stories to express the requirements of the project. A user story is a simple and short written description of desired functionality from the perspective of user or owner. User stories play an effective role on all time constrained projects and a good way to introducing a bit of agility to the projects. Personas can be used to fill the gap of user stories.

abstract: Lots of previous studies have analyzed human tutoring at great depths and have shown expert human tutors to produce effect sizes, which is twice of that produced by an intelligent tutoring system (ITS). However, there has been no consensus on which factor makes them so effective. It is important to know this, so that same phenomena can be replicated in an ITS in order to achieve the same level of proficiency as expert human tutors. Also, to the best of my knowledge no one has looked at student reactions when they are working with a computer based tutor. The answers to both these questions are needed in order to build a highly effective computer-based tutor. My research focuses on the second question. In the first phase of my thesis, I analyzed the behavior of students when they were working with a step-based tutor Andes, using verbal-protocol analysis. The accomplishment of doing this was that I got to know of some ways in which students use a step-based tutor which can pave way for the creation of more effective computer-based tutors. I found from the first phase of the research that students often keep trying to fix errors by guessing repeatedly instead of asking for help by clicking the hint button. This phenomenon is known as hint refusal. Surprisingly, a large portion of the student's foundering was due to hint refusal. The hypothesis tested in the second phase of the research is that hint refusal can be significantly reduced and learning can be significantly increased if Andes uses more unsolicited hints and meta hints. An unsolicited hint is a hint that is given without the student asking for one. A meta-hint is like an unsolicited hint in that it is given without the student asking for it, but it just prompts the student to click on the hint button. Two versions of Andes were compared: the original version and a new version that gave more unsolicited and meta-hints. During a two-hour experiment, there were large, statistically reliable differences in several performance measures suggesting that the new policy was more effective. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Computer Science 2011

In light of the growing concern about the psychological impact of computer, console and handheld electronic games (digital games), this research explores the thoughts and thinking strategies of game players (gamers) during gameplay. It attempts to achieve this goal by means of using a form of verbal analysis based on the 'think out loud' method of Protocol Analysis. The recordings of gamers engaged in the 'think out loud' exercise during gameplay at a gaming networking session were transcribed and analyzed. These gamers participated in two different genres of games. The fist was a First-Person Shooter (FPS) and the second a Real Time Strategy (RTS). The content of the different transcripts were categorized using cognitive models and theories. From this process a nine category classification framework was developed. By dividing identified thought segments into these different categories, a quantitative frequency analysis was possible. This supplemented the overall qualitative exploration of gamers’ thoughts and thinking strategies. The results of this study indicate that different genres of games stimulate different concentrations of different types of thoughts. Overall these concentrations numerically classify gaming as an activity in terms of perception, cognition, emotion, and self immersion. It also indicated that each genre has its own unique influence and that each player is uniquely engaged. Besides providing insight into gamers’ thoughts and thinking strategies, this study also provides evidence that an adapted form of verbal analysis is suitable in exploring a visually absorbing activity such as gaming. / Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 2006. / Psychology / unrestricted

La sécurité des systèmes de contrôle industriel est une préoccupation majeure. En effet, ces systèmes gèrent des installations qui jouent un rôle économique important. En outre, attaquer ces systèmes peut non seulement entraîner des pertes économiques, mais aussi menacer des vies humaines. Par conséquent, et comme ces systèmes dépendent des données collectées, il devient évident qu’en plus des exigences de temps réel, il est important de sécuriser les canaux de communication entre ces capteurs et les contrôleurs principaux. Ces problèmes sont plus difficiles à résoudre dans les réseaux de capteurs sans fil (WSN). Cette thèse a pour but d’aborder les questions de sécurité des WSN. Tout d’abord, nous effectuons une étude de sécurité approfondie du protocole WirelessHART. Ce dernier est le protocole leader pour les réseaux de capteurs sans fil industriels (WISN). Nous évaluons ses forces et soulignons ses faiblesses et ses limites. En particulier, nous décrivons deux vulnérabilités de sécurité dangereuses dans son schéma de communication et proposons des améliorations afin d’y remédier. Ensuite, nous présentons wIDS, un système de détection d’intrusion (IDS) multicouches qui se base sur les spécifications, spécialement développé pour les réseaux de capteurs sans fil industriels. L’IDS proposé vérifie la conformité de chaque action effectuée par un noeud sans fil sur la base d’un modèle formel du comportement normal attendu. / The security in Industrial Control Systems is a major concern. Indeed, these systems manage installations that play an important economical role. Furthermore, targeting these systems can lead not only to economical losses but can also threaten human lives. Therefore, and as these systems depend on sensing data, it becomes obvious that additionally to real-time requirement, it is important to secure communication channels between these sensors and the main controllers. These issues are more challenging inWireless Sensor Networks (WSN) as the use of wireless communications brings its own security weaknesses. This thesis aims to address WSN-based security issues. Firstly, we conduct an in-deep security study of the WirelessHART protocol. This latter is the leading protocol for Wireless Industrial Sensor Networks (WISN) and is the first international approved standard. We assess its strengths and emphasize its weaknesses and limitations. In particular, we describe two harmful security vulnerabilities in the communication scheme of WirelessHART and propose improvement in order to mitigate them. Secondly, we present wIDS, a multilayer specification based Intrusion Detection System (IDS) specially tailored for Wireless Industrial Sensor Networks. The proposed IDS checks the compliance of each action performed by a wireless node based on a formal model of the expected normal behavior.

本文主要之研究目的如下： 1、驗證口語資料分析方法的客觀性與可行性，以推廣此一研究方法至一般管理研究中，使其不再侷限於認知心理學上的運用。 2、以學習型組織的個案為例，利用口語資料分析法瞭解學習型組織在推行的過程中，各階層成員彼此的心智模式差異。 　　本研究承續蔡耀堂（1998）碩士論文的精神，並補之不足，建立口語資料分析的編碼階段：著重口語資料分析法上編碼的工作，以增加其客觀性及研究上的信度。沿用Chi（1994）所提出「口語資料分析及編碼八大步驟」之理論精神，研究設計即為逐步將訪問資料編碼，利用個案公司中兩位成員的訪問資料為範例作重新編碼，並根據兩位受訪者分別對組織在制度面及觀念面不同看法的心智模式作一說明並比較差異。本研究之研究設計步驟如下： 1、 刪減（reduce） 2、 由訪問稿中挑選關鍵字，製造成不同的概念（concept），成為節點 3、 將概念予以連結，並註明連結關係 4、 將不同概念之間的關係連結為網路圖 5、 辨識執行面或抽象觀念面 6、 並將兩人分類後的語意圖彙整為口語資料網路圖，分為制度面及觀念面，並根據網路圖檢視差異性 　　本研究著重Chi（1994）理論的前半部編碼過程，旨在建立客觀的編碼步驟，編碼方式為由下而上的連結，呈現語意網路圖之層級性及完整性。同時藉由網路圖的分析發現組織層級的高低將會影響對公司推動組織變革瞭解的差異。 　　本研究最主要的貢獻在於證明口語資料分析工具的實用性及客觀性，透過逐步繪製語意圖，避免分析者的主觀推論，並且利用語意網路圖將不受訪問題目設計的限制，窺知其背後的思維邏輯，跳離文字一度空間的限制。將口語資料分析法介紹至一般研究方法中，當利用個案訪談法作為研究方法時，可以搭配口語資料分析法為其研究工具，將更有另一番斬獲。 第一章 緒論 4 第一節 研究動機 4 第二節 研究目的 6 第三節 研究流程 7 第四節 研究範圍 8 第五節 章節流程 9 第二章 文獻探討 10 第一節 口語資料分析 10 一、 文獻整理 10 二、 本節結論 16 第二節 學習的意義 17 一、 文獻討論 17 二、 本節結論 19 第三節 組織學習的意義 20 一、 文獻討論 20 二、 本節結論 24 第四節 學習型組織的意義 25 一、 文獻討論 25 二、 本節結論 31 第五節 學習型組織的建立 33 一、 文獻討論 33 二、 國內導入學習型組織的範例 37 三、 本節結論 39 第三章 研究方法論 40 第一節 研究設計 40 一、 口語資料編碼的階段 41 二、 舉例說明 42 三、 受訪者心智模式分析階段 44 第二節 研究類型與定位 45 第三節 研究對象與資料蒐集 46 第四章 口語資料分析 48 第一節 個案公司高階及團隊成員的口語資料分析 49 一、 L部長 49 二、 甲團隊成員 82 第二節 研究發現 98 一、 心智模式彙整之步驟 98 二、 心智模式彙整之結果 100 三、 心智模式彙總之解讀 104 四、 本研究與之前蔡耀堂（1998）之研究比較 108 第五章 結論與建議 116 第一節 研究結論 116 第二節 研究限制 118 第三節 後續研究建議 119 附錄一 121 DRC公司的背景資料 121 一、 DRC的經營歷史 121 二、 產品介紹與產業概況 123 三、 組織結構與作業流程 125 附錄二 127 參考文獻 134 圖目錄 圖1-1 研究流程圖 8 圖2-1 學習是經驗與學習的中介變數 20 圖2-2 學習型組織連續帶的觀念 33 圖2-2 百略公司推動學習型組織流程圖 39 圖3-1 語意圖之範例說明 45 圖4-1 團隊成員心智模式之制度面 101 圖4-2 團隊成員心智模式之觀念面 102 圖4-3 L部長之制度面 103 圖4-4 L部長心智模式之觀念面 104 圖4-5 相關論文之語意網路圖 112 圖6-1 DRC變革之前組織圖 126 表目錄 表2-1 組織學習的定義整理 21 表2-2 學者對學習型組織的定義整理 26 表2-3 五項修練 29 表2-4 傳統型組織與學習型組織比較 32 表2-5 企業成功轉型的八大步驟（KOTTER） 35 表2-6 學習型組織的推動 37 表3-1 口語資料之編碼步驟整理 42 表3-4 個案訪談過程總整理 47 表4-1 DRC漫畫社的發展歷史 122 表4-2 L部長訪問時間整理 50 表4-1 與相關論文間的異同比較 115