O pressuposto desta pesquisa é de que a divulgação de informações ambientais, no âmbito das provisões e passivos contingentes, reagiu aos avanços na normatização contábil. A normatização contábil genérica sobre evidenciação de obrigações incertas era restrita, em meados de 1976, à Lei no 6.404, e assim permaneceu ao longo de pelo menos uma década e meia, quando começou a ser desenvolvida. Ao longo dos anos foram criados padrões obrigatórios de divulgação, com critérios de julgamento mais detalhados para a classificação da obrigação incerta em provável, possível ou remota. Embora ainda apresente algum grau de subjetividade, o desenvolvimento destes critérios pode ter contribuído para a diminuição da assimetria informacional: a empresa passou a contar com um conjunto de orientações mais claras e, portanto, com melhores condições de averiguar e divulgar suas obrigações incertas. Esse avanço contribuiu para que as obrigações ambientais passassem a ter maior exposição, principalmente no âmbito das empresas potencialmente poluidoras, como as do setor de energia elétrica, que utilizam recursos naturais e modificam o meio ambiente. Neste contexto, o objetivo deste estudo foi analisar as evidências de passivo ambiental divulgadas pelas empresas do setor de energia elétrica, de 1997 a 2014. Para tanto, foi desenvolvido um estudo qualitativo, descritivo e longitudinal, por meio da análise de conteúdo de 941 notas explicativas, de uma população de 64 empresas do setor de energia elétrica, de acordo com listagem na BM&FBovespa, em maio de 2015. A amostra foi constituída de 26 empresas, que divulgaram o total de 468 notas explicativas no site da CVM, de 1997 a 2014. Ao longo destes 18 anos, 14 empresas da amostra (53,85%) evidenciaram passivos ambientais ao menos uma vez e 12 instituições (46,15%) não o fizeram e, do total de 468 notas explicativas, 100 (21,37%) evidenciaram passivo ambiental. O número de evidências de passivos ambientais era pequeno em meados de 1997, mas ascendeu, com um aumento mais consistente a partir de 2006, ano que coincide com a aprovação da Norma e Procedimento de Contabilidade 22 - Provisões, Passivos, Contingências Passivas e Contingências Ativas, emitida pelo IBRACON. Adicionalmente, a materialidade quantitativa estava na média de 0,61% para provisões ambientais e 0,89% para os passivos contingentes ambientais, desconsiderando-se os outliers. A dimensão das notas explicativas, em termos de quantidade de palavras, foi crescente e diversificada. Em conclusão, a evidenciação contábil pode, em adição à evidenciação voluntária, ser um meio plausível para a divulgação de questões ambientais e redução da assimetria informacional, principalmente quando a normatização contábil se faz mais clara e detalhada. / The assumption of this research is that the dissemination of environmental informations, under the provisions and contingent liabilities, reacted to developments in accounting standard setting. The general accounting regulation on disclosure of uncertain obligations was restricted to the Law no 6.404 in mid-1976, and remained so for over at least a decade and a half, when it began to be developed. Over the years mandatory disclosure standards were created, with more detailed judgment criteria for the classification of an uncertain obligation as probable, possible or remote. Although still carrying some degree of subjectivity, the development of these criteria may have contributed to the reduction of the information asymmetry: the company has now a set of clearer guidelines and, consequently, it is in a better condition to assess and disclose its uncertain obligations. A greater exposure ofthe environmental obligations was brought about by these advancements, especially in the context of potentially polluting companies, such as the electricity sector, which use natural resources and impact the environment. In this context, the aim of this study was to analyse the evidences of provisions and environmental contingent liabilities, diclosed by the eletricity sector, from 1997 to 2014. For this purpose, we developed a qualitative, descriptive and longitudinal study, using the content analysis of 941 notes, of a population of 64 companies in the electricity sector, according to listing on the BM&FBovespa, on May 2015. The sample is composed of 26 companies, which provided their financial statements on the CVM website from 1997 to 2014, and reported the total of 468 notes. Over the 18 years period analyzed, 14 of these companies (53.85%) showed at least one environmental liability and 12 (46.15%) did not, and, from the 468 notes, 100 (21,37%) reported environmental liability. The number of environmental liabilities evidences was small in mid-1997, but it rose progressively, with a more consistent increase from 2006, the year that coincides with the adoption of Accounting Standard and Procedure 22 - Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Asset, issued by IBRACON. In addition, the quantitative materiality averaged 0.61% in the case of the environmental provisions and 0.89% for environmental contingent liabilities, disregarding the outliers. The notes extent, in terms of the number of words, showed growth and diversity. As a result, the accounting disclosure may be, in addition to the voluntary disclosure, a plausible way to divulge environmental issues and reduce information asymmetry, especially when the accounting standard-setting becomes clearer and more detailed.

Les questions liées à l’applicabilité temporelle du droit de l’Union européenne se posent dès qu’un acte nouveau est adopté par l’Union. Il est systématiquement nécessaire de déterminer l’instant à compter duquel cet acte produit ses effets et les faits alors concernés. L’exigence d’uniformité du droit de l’Union européenne implique, de surcroît, que les réponses à ces questions soient apportées par le droit de l’Union européenne lui-même. En dépit de leur importance, ces questions ont été largement délaissées par la doctrine communautariste. La jurisprudence de la Cour de justice de l’Union européenne et les actes adoptés par l’Union européenne (droit primaire, droit dérivé et accords internationaux) sont pourtant riches d’enseignements. En effet, la Cour de justice a consacré des principes constituant le cadre général de l’applicabilité temporelle du droit de l’Union européenne. Bien que pertinent, ce cadre doit être enrichi par des règles écrites adoptées au cas par cas : les dispositions transitoires. Ces dernières, de prime abord particulièrement critiquables faute d’être aisément identifiables et interprétables, se révèlent être un instrument indispensable à l’applicabilité temporelle du droit de l’Union européenne. / The temporal applicability of the European Union lawThe questions relating to the temporal applicability of the European Union law arise as soon as the European Union adopts a new act. It is systematically necessary to determine the instant from which the act products its effects and the facts to which it applies. Furthermore, the principle of uniformity of the European Union law means that these questions must be answered by the European Union law itself. In spite of their importance these questions have been neglected by the European Union legal literature. Yet the case-law of the European Union Court of Justice and the acts adopted by the European Union (primary law, secondary legislation and international agreements) provide a wealth of information. Indeed, the Court of Justice has established principles which constitute the general framework of the temporal applicability of the European Union law. However relevant, this general framework must be completed by transitionnal provisions, a set of written subsidiary rules adopted on a case-by-case basis). These transitional provisions, at first deeply questionable due to being hard to identify and interpret, turn out to be a critical tool for the temporal applicability of the European Union law.

The thesis seeks to interrogate historically the relationship between multinational healthcare service companies and states in the pursuit of market-oriented reforms for healthcare. It constitutes a critical reading of the idea of globalisation as a concept with substantive explanatory value to analyse the causal role of multinational service firms in a commercial transformation in national healthcare service sectors. It analyses the development and expansion of commercial (for-profit) healthcare service provision and financing in the healthcare systems of OECD countries. The hospital and health insurance sectors in the US and UK are analysed as case studies towards developing this critical reading from a more specific national setting. The thesis contributes to developing a framework for analysing the emergence of an international market for trade in healthcare services, which is a recently emerging area of research in the social sciences. As such, it uses an interdisciplinary approach, utilising insights from health policy and international political economy. The research entails a longitudinal study of secondary and primary sources of qualitative data broadly covering the period 1975-2005. I have also made extensive use of quantitative data to illustrate key economic trends that are relevant to the changes in the particular healthcare services sectors analysed. The research finds a substantive shift in the mixed economy of healthcare in which commercial healthcare service provision and financing are increasing. However, while the internationalisation of healthcare service firms is a key element in helping to drive some of this change, the changes are ultimately highly dependent on state-level decision making and regulation. In this context, the thesis argues that globalisation presents an inadequate and potentially misleading conceptual framework for analysing these changes without a historical grounding in the particular developments of national and international markets for healthcare services.

Technical provisions represent one of the most important item of liabilities in accounting of an insurance company. Technical provisions reperesent liabilities for clients of the insurance companies. The exact amount of these provisions is not known in advance. The main reason for generating technical provisions by insurance companies is to fulfill the liabilites arising from insurance and reinsurance contracts in the future. The first chapter of this thesis deals with the principle of the provisions in accounting in general. The next chapters deals with the provisions generated according to IFRS and the czech law. The most extensive chapter describes the technical provisions from the perspective of the czech law for insurance companies. The examples of the technical provisions are the integral part of the thesis.

Este trabalho propôs-se a responder se existem indícios suficientes para se afirmar que os bancos comerciais no Brasil praticam alguma modalidade de gerenciamento de resultados. Para tanto, foi verificado se os bancos comerciais selecionados - instituições líderes dos vinte maiores conglomerados bancários brasileiros - utilizaram os ágios em investimentos em controladas e coligadas, as operações com títulos e valores mobiliários, as provisões para operações de crédito ou os passivos contingentes para gerenciar seus resultados. Dois dos três bancos que possuíam ágios em investimentos em controladas e coligadas efetivamente utilizaram sua amortização para gerenciar seus resultados. Cinqüenta e cinco por cento dos bancos selecionados utilizaram a classificação dos títulos e valores mobiliários para praticar o gerenciamento de resultados. Com relação à provisão para operações de crédito, seis bancos usaram-na para gerenciar seus resultados, outros seis bancos não a usaram e para cinco bancos os resultados foram inconclusivos. Os resultados também foram inconclusivos para os passivos contingentes. / This thesis purpose is to detect if there are enough signs to assure that Brazilian commercial banks practice any kind of earnings management. For that, it was checked if the selected Brazilian commercial banks - leader institutions of the twenty biggest Brazilian banking conglomerates - used goodwill on acquisitions of subsidiary companies, securities classification, loan loss provisions or contingent and legal liabilities to practice earnings management. Two of three banks that had goodwill on acquisitions of subsidiary companies effectively used its amortization to manage the banks results. Fifty-five percent of the selected banks did use securities classification to practice earnings management. Regarding the loan loss provisions, six banks used them to manage results, other six banks did not use them to manage results and for five banks the results were inconclusive. The results were also inconclusive for contingent and legal liabilities provisions.

Healthcare fraud is a major problem within the healthcare industry. The study examined medical fraud, its laws, and punishments on federal and state levels. It compared medical fraud to non-fraud crimes done in the healthcare industry. This comparison will be done on a state level. The study attempted to analyze the severity of fraud against non-fraud and that doctors would commit fraud offenses more often than non-fraud offenses.

<p>This paper will analyse critically the main sources, namely UNCAC, the African Union Convention on Prevention and Combating Corruption (AU Convention), the Southern African Development Community Protocol against Corruption (SADC Protocol) and the Council of Europe Criminal Law Convention on Corruption (CoE Convention). Furthermore, the paper will examine the corresponding explanatory notes and try to provide a picture of the most important aspects of the issue. As many countries are obliged to consider the criminalisation of trading in influence, drawing an overview of it may make a substantial contribution to its comprehension. Due to the limited space, the paper is unable to cover all provisions of trading in influence in countries where it exists. Accordingly, the discussion will be restricted to the situation in France, Spain and Belgium. By analysing the position in these countries, the different approaches to criminalisation can be highlighted.</p>

Prior empirical research, mainly conducted in US under the US GAAP, has indicated that managers in listed banks use loan loss provisions as a primary tool for income smoothing activities. Since 2005 the accounting environment in the European Union (EU) changed, as all listed companies are required to comply with International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). Some arguments envisage that IFRS is a set of high quality standards that plug some inconsistencies relative to national General Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP). The overall objective of the present study is to examine earnings management and in particular income smoothing through the use of loan loss provisions (LLP) to manage earnings under IFRS and national GAAPs. The sample consists of twenty large commercial banks listed in the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden) for the years 2004-2012 (including early adopters) and sixteen banks for the years 1996-2003 under each country’s national reporting regime. Furthermore we present the body of earning management literature in conjunction with agency theory in order to grasp managers’ opportunistic behavior. Finally we assess the institutional role of financial reporting standards and the arguments of how IFRS could restrict earnings management activities as proposed by some authors. Overall, our results indicate some degree of income smoothing activities through loan loss provisions by bank managers both under national GAAPs and IFRS. The study contributes to the broad literature body on earnings management, while testing income-smoothing activities on a single industry compared to previous studies where the samples comprises a variety of firms in different industries.

Dans cette thèse, la fiabilité des provisions comptables environnementales est évaluée par une combinaison de méthodes de recherche quantitatives et qualitatives dans une perspective de triangulation des résultats. Tout d'abord, l'étude de la divulgation de ces provisions par les groupes cotés français révèle son insuffisance et sa dégradation sur la période 2005-2010. Ensuite, l'utilisation de tests d'adéquation à la loi de Benford pour les montants comptabilisés au bilan et de régressions multiples pour les impacts au résultat ne permettent pas de remettre en cause la fiabilité des provisions environnementales divulguées par le même échantillon de groupes cotés français. Ces résultats contrastent avec ceux des recherches antérieures validant l'utilisation discrétionnaire des provisions environnementales pour lisser le résultat et limiter l'émergence de coûts politiques. L'étude de cas multiple conduite au niveau des acteurs de ces mêmes groupes explique cette fiabilité des montants par celle de leur processus de détermination et les nombreuses pressions institutionnelles qui l'encadrent. Les résultats de cette thèse indiquent donc que certains choix comptables pouvant affecter le résultat de façon discrétionnaire sont davantage expliqués par les pressions institutionnelles subies que par la volonté des dirigeants d'améliorer leur situation personnelle.

For the evaluation of banks¡¦ performance, non-performing loans ratio and capital adequacy ratio are the two major indicators other than earnings performance. Among the various tools for earnings manipulation, loan loss provisions may be the only one that could affect bank¡¦s earning numbers, non-performing loans ratio and capital adequacy ratio simultaneously. In order to satisfy the need to increase earnings and capital adequacy ratio and to decrease non-performing loans ratio, banks may have motivation to conduct earnings management. The purpose of the study is thus to investigate whether there is a relationship between the earnings management by using the discretionary loan loss provisions and the earnings before loan loss provisions, non-performing loans ratio, capital adequacy ratio, asset size, loan growth rate, and loans uncollected. In addition, the study divides the sample banks into the following categories: (1) commercial banks versus others, (2) new banks versus old banks (based on the time the bank was founded), and (3) state-run versus non-state-run (based on whether the president of the bank is appointed by the government). The study also intends to examine whether earnings management conducted by the bank¡¦s management is different between the various categories. Based on the empirical results from the Taiwan Economics Journal (TEJ) database, the study found: (1) the three variables of earnings before loan loss provisions, asset size, and loans uncollected are significantly related to the earnings management by using discretionary loan loss provisions, and the higher the three variables, the higher the degree of earnings management; (2) non-performing loans ratio, capital adequacy ratio, and loan growth rate are not found to be significantly related to the earnings management by using discretionary loan loss provisions; (3) state-run banks have conducted more earnings management than non-state-run banks; and (4) there is no significant result found in other analyses for other categories.