Master of Science / Psychological Sciences / Richard J. Harris / Figurative language use is not limited to poetry or literature but is a ubiquitous part of speech. Studies that looked at figurative language comprehension have shown that some cognitive mechanisms, such as working memory, may be involved in figurative language comprehension. For example, individuals with high working memory span tend to produce deeper metaphor interpretations. The current work was interested in how working memory is involved in a particular figure of speech comprehension: idioms. An idiom is a phrase whose meaning cannot be simply deduced from the literal meanings of the words that comprise that idiom. Idioms can vary according to their compositionality, which refers to the extent with which meanings of the idiom constituents provide cues for the idiom's idiomatic meaning. A number of researchers agreed upon certain idioms being decomposable and other idioms being fixed. The two different types were used in the Main Study. Models of idiom comprehension also vary from traditional "lexical look-up" models that consider idioms as multi-word lexical units stored as such in speakers' mental lexicons to "nonlexical" models, such as the Configuration Hypothesis, that states that an idiom as a whole does not have a separate lexical representation in the mental lexicon. Both models are considered in this work. Finally, understanding idiomatic expressions may require inhibiting irrelevant literal information. For example, literal meanings of the words dogs and cats in an idiom it is raining cats and dogs have to be inhibited in order to gather the figurative meaning of the expression. Thus, the main objective of the current work was to assess the role of working memory in idiom comprehension, as well as to explore whether idiom compositionality had an effect on how fast idioms were interpreted, while also considering implications for the two main models of idiom comprehension. A Preliminary Study narrowed down the list of idioms to the 26 that were used in the Main study, ensuring that both types of idioms did not differ in familiarity or length. The Main Study consisted of four tasks: working memory (Operation span task), inhibition (reading with distractions), idiom comprehension, and familiarity. Seventy-three general psychology students participated in the Main Study. The data were analyzed by several regression analyses and t-tests. The main finding was that there seems to be a difference in a way the two accepted types of idioms are interpreted: fixed idioms were interpreted faster than decomposable idioms. This is consistent with the lexical lookup hypothesis but only for fixed idioms and suggests that readers may not have to analyze the literal word meanings of fixed idioms when interpreting them, thus making their interpretation faster, since retrieving is faster than computing. Neither familiarity nor idiom length could account for this difference. On the other hand, neither operation span nor the number of critical errors committed by participants on the inhibition task predicted how long it took participants to interpret either type of idioms. Several possible explanations for such results are discussed, as well as the limitations and future directions.

Master of Science / Department of Psychological Sciences / Laura A. Brannon / Previous research has repeatedly demonstrated that undergraduate students overrate others’ norm comfort with and consumption of alcohol (i.e., Prentice & Miller, 1993). This is a dangerous misperception, as students are increasing their personal alcohol intake and / or frequency in order to match their incorrect perception of how much everyone else is drinking. Already assuming that their peers are more comfortable with, and consume more, alcohol than they do, college students’ perception of norm alcohol use may be influenced by peer comments indicating approval / disapproval of alcohol use. Thus, the present study experimentally tested whether a positive or negative comment in reaction to a portrayal of excessive drinking would influence participants’ perceptions of drinking behavior among their campus peers, and whether the sex of the person making the comment differentially influences participants’ perceptions of each sex’s extent of participation in drinking. Participants’ perceptions of drinking behavior were not influenced by the confederate comment nor confederate sex; however, participants consistently estimated that the drinking norm is higher for males than females. Additionally, female participants perceived the drinking norm to be higher than did male participants. Participants’ ratings of the confederates did differ, however, depending on the comment; participants rated the confederates more favorably when the comment made was negative / criticizing of excessive drinking than when the comment made was positive / endorsing of excessive drinking.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Psychological Sciences / Gary Brase / Although fertility decision-making has been the source of considerable theoretical and empirical investigation, the effect of several contextual variables on individuals’ fertility decision-making processes are not yet understood. For example, are individuals more strongly influenced by social forces that are informational or normative? Also, do individuals change their fertility intentions based on their current and developmental economic conditions? Further, how ‘shared’ are reproductive decisions within a couple, are males or females more likely to get what they want? This 3-study program of research used both experimental and exploratory qualitative methods to elucidate the nature of these unresolved issues within the domain of fertility decision-making. Study 1 (N = 344, M[subscript]age = 23, SD[subscript]age =6.41, 59.3% female) found that highly motivated individuals’ fertility intentions were more susceptible to informational, compared to normative messages (the opposite was true for unmotivated participants). Study 2 (N = 249, M[subscript]age = 24, SD[subscript]age =6.10, 61.4% female) found that exposure to mortality primes up-regulated fertility intentions for individuals with “fast” life history strategies, but facilitated the down-regulation of fertility intentions for individuals with “slow” life history strategies. Interestingly, resource scarcity primes were associated with the postponement of fertility plans in individuals’ with “fast” life history strategies. Study 3 (N = 120, M[subscript]age = 21, SD[subscript]age =4.96, 50% female) found that, contrary to predictions, the similarity of couples’ gender role attitudes, career-orientations, and education levels did not significantly predict the frequency of their use of statements coded as compromise and agreement or persuasion and disagreement in their discussions regarding their future reproductive plans. Findings do suggest that individuals with higher levels of education were more likely to use persuasion and disagreement statements in their child timing and number discussions with their romantic partner, indicative of greater decision-making power in that particular social exchange. Further, men and women in study 3 were equally likely to use statements coded as compromise and agreement, persuasion and disagreement, and concession when discussing both their future fertility plans as well as their future financial plans.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Psychology / Ronald G. Downey / Literature on work and family, the two important domains in an individual’s life, has focused heavily on the conflicts that could occur when individuals try to juggle between their responsibilities in the two domains. Lately, there has been enthusiasm to also study the facilitation aspects that could result from being engaged in both domains. This dissertation empirically tests the Resources-Development-Gain model (RGD), a recently developed work and family facilitation model, which include work and non-work factors that can bring facilitation. Over 500 academic faculty members from four universities completed an online survey comprised of demographic items, family and work variables, variables to measure facilitation, outcome variables in both domains, and personality variables. The hypothesized model (model 1) was analyzed using AMOS, and was found to be a poor fit. Personality factors included as moderators in the facilitation process were found to be non-significant and hence dropped from the modified model (Model 2). This was a significantly better fit. Model 3 was analyzed to see if a better fit would be obtained when personality variables were directly connected to outcome variables. As Model 3 did not add anything significant, Model 2 was accepted. The findings suggest that faculty tenure influenced their turnover intentions, with new academic faculty and full professors showing lower turnover intentions. Family support brought facilitation from one’s family to work and contributed to life satisfaction, while organizational support contributed to facilitation from one’s work to non-work life. No significant overlaps were found between work and family domains in the facilitation stage, but were observed at the outcome levels. Thus, job satisfaction in the work domain contributed to overall life satisfaction in the family domain. Satisfaction in one’s personal relations also tended to influence one’s turnover decisions. Future directions for research and recommendations are discussed.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Psychology / Clive Fullagar / This dissertation investigated the relationship between a low-quality leader-member exchange (LMX) relationship and whether participants felt they were bullied at work. The study looked at retaliatory behavior as an outcome of experiencing bullying behavior. The study investigated whether ostracism would mediate the effect between LMX and workplace bullying and whether social support would moderate the relationship between workplace bullying and retaliatory behavior. The sample was comprised of 209 participants who were either employed by Kansas State University or were taking classes as non-traditional students at Kansas State University. The study sample was demographically 49.76% female and 50.24% male. The survey was administered using K-State’s on-line AXIO survey system, which ensured confidentiality and accurate data entry. The study found that a low-quality LMX relationship predicted workplace bullying and workplace bullying behavior predicted retaliatory behavior. Ostracism did not mediate the relationship between a low-quality LMX relationship and workplace bullying behavior, but social support did have moderating effects between workplace bullying behavior and retaliatory behavior. The moderated effects of social support showed a buffering effect for men with coworker support and an increase in retaliatory behavior for women for all forms of social support. The results are discussed in the context of understanding how organizational leadership can reduce the negative effects of workplace bullying behavior.

Master of Science / Department of Psychological Sciences / Clive J. A. Fullagar / This mixed-methods study consisted of two phases. First, interviews were conducted with ROTC instructors responsible for organizational socialization of newcomers to the U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force. This data shaped surveys given to organizational newcomers in phase II, which measured organizational culture and cognitive leadership schemas. It was hypothesized that implicit leadership theories (ILTs) would reflect respective organizational cultures. Although this was supported in the qualitative results from Phase I, it was not supported in the quantitative results from Phase II. However, analyses showed that leadership is still perceived as a masculine role in both the U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force, as was hypothesized. It was also hypothesized that leaders in line occupations would be seen as better leaders than leaders in staff occupations. This was supported for the Air Force sample, but not the Army sample. During the interviews, ROTC instructors asserted that male and female leaders were equally capable, and that line and staff leaders were equally capable. However, questioning revealed that organizational stereotypes still defined the quintessential leader as a male in a line occupation, although females had more opportunities to fill those key occupations in the Air Force than in the Army, at the time of this study. This discrepancy, along with the discrepancies in results between the qualitative and quantitative data, indicate that organizational culture has perhaps changed at the levels of visible artifacts and espoused values with respect to diversity, but has not yet changed at the fundamental level of basic assumptions.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Family Studies and Human Services / Joyce A. Baptist / Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a prevalent, pervasive chronic illness. It is a hereditary condition that affects those of African, Mediterranean, Indian, Middle Eastern, and Hispanic/Latino descent. It causes extreme pain for patients and a myriad of other symptoms and complications. The medical issues associated with and the very nature of SCD has the potential to cause psychological distress and related problems for patients. Parents, caregivers, significant others, and family members are similarly affected by a family member with SCD. Applying the Vulnerability-Stress-Adaptation Model, this qualitative study used heterogeneous sampling and explored the experience of three families with SCD. Three main themes emerged from the data, analyzed using thematic analysis: Stress and Challenges, Adapting to and Coping with the Demands of SCD, and Individual and Family Strengths. The pervasiveness and unpredictability of SCD as well as the strengthening effects of having experienced SCD were shared across families, despite their heterogeneity. Clinical implications for families with SCD are discussed.

Master of Science / Department of Psychology / Gary L. Brase / In 2006, the Center for Disease Control and Prevention recommended the revision of state HIV testing laws. With these recommendations, more low-risk individuals are tested regardless of their risk group. However, there is a greater chance of a false positive test result for low-risk individuals than for high-risk individuals. Additionally, previous research found that doctors and HIV counselors in Germany did not accurately communicate the relationship between risk factors and false positive tests (Gigerenzer, Hoffrage, & Ebert, 1998). This study aimed to (1) compare the findings of the 1998 German sample to HIV hotline counselors in the United States in 2011; and (2) to investigate the ability of students to calculate the conditional probability of HIV for a low-risk individual after receiving a positive test, based on idealized transcripts of conversations with HIV hotline counselors. The first study found that HIV hotline counselors use both verbal expressions of risk and percentages to communicate HIV testing statistics. Additionally, 2011 American counselors were more aware of the chance of false positives and false negatives than compared to the 1998 German sample. However, no 2011 American counselors were able to provide an accurate positive predictive value for a low-risk woman. The second study found low performance among students in the calculation of the positive predictive value. Performance was facilitated by a natural frequency format for high numerate individuals. There were different patterns of results for the General Numeracy Scale and the Subjective Numeracy Scale. This would suggest that these two scales might be measuring different constructs. These findings are consistent with the two theories supporting the Frequency Effect, namely the Frequentist Hypothesis and the Nested Sets Hypothesis. Additionally, this research suggests computation of the conditional risk of HIV is facilitated by a natural frequency format. Teaching techniques have been developed and demonstrate long lasting improvement in health related computations. If a few hours of training is all that it takes to communicate these life and death statistics in a manner that is consistent with reasoning, health practitioners and students should be required to have more education in communicating and computing probabilities.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Psychological Sciences / Gary Brase / Brand Equity is a common phrase in consumer research, but there is still a lot of ambiguity surrounding the measurement of this concept (Keller, 2008). Several methods of measurement have been proposed over the years, but no one method has been adopted as the ideal way to predict purchase intent and measure brand equity. The current research tested three theories—Social Exchange Theory (SET), Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), and the Yoo and Donthu model—to see which is the best predictor of purchase intent and brand equity. SET assumes consumers weigh the costs and rewards of purchasing the product. TPB uses consumers’ attitudes over purchasing the product, subjective norms of what others would do, and the perceived behavioral control consumers have in actually purchasing the product. The Yoo and Donthu model has been used most often of the three theories in measuring brand equity and includes measures of brand loyalty, perceived quality, brand awareness/associations, and overall brand equity. Study 1 assessed consumer durable products (TV and athletic shoes) and Study 2 assessed consumer non-durable products (soap and toothpaste). Consumers evaluated these products online based on a picture of the product, the brand name, price, customer reviews, quality ratings, and an advertisement and then indicated their likelihood to purchase the product. Theory of Planned Behavior was the best predictor of purchase intent across all four products assessed indicating that consumers look at external factors such as what others would do as well as how much control they have over purchasing the product as much as they consider their own attitudes.

Doctor of Philosophy / Psychological Sciences / Patrick A. Knight / Satisfaction with work-family balance is a relatively new construct that differs from other work-life constructs in several ways: it is not focused on conflict between work/family domains, does not include cross-domain transfer processes, has no directional implications, and is not multidimensional. The current study has three purposes: 1. Examine work-family balance issues for both blue-collar and white-collar employees, as the literature has focused mainly on white-collar employees. 2. Examine relationship between technology and satisfaction with work-family balance. 3. Assess how role salience influences satisfaction with work-family balance. Participants were recruited and compensated for completing a 60 item online survey via Qualtrics. Blue-collar participants were recruited from manufacturing industries, while no industry was specified for white-collar employees. The sample consisted of 210 participants (105 blue-collar, 105 white-collar). Several checks were included throughout the survey to ensure data quality. Two hierarchical regression analyses were conducted. The first regression revealed that boundary control and autonomy predict satisfaction with work-family balance, while employee type and boundary interruptions do not. Boundary control, family identity, and stress significantly predicted satisfaction with work-family balance in the second regression, while boundary interruptions, work identity, hours worked, and technology use did not. Results indicate white-collar workers have higher satisfaction with work-family balance, lower stress, and lower turnover intentions compared to blue-collar workers. Results also reveal that technology use to complete work outside of work hours is significantly and positively related to stress. Nearly half of participants report feeling expected to utilize technology to complete work outside of work hours. In addition, while it was hypothesized that those higher on family identity would have lower satisfaction with work-family balance when they used technology outside of work hours, worked longer hours, and had more frequent boundary interruptions than would those lower on family identity, the opposite effect was found for each of these variables. Implications of the study include: 1. Organizations may improve employee satisfaction with work-family balance by increasing autonomy and boundary control. 2. Employees may improve satisfaction with work-family balance by taking time to de-stress from work and limiting use of technology to complete work outside of work hours.