English law originally did not provide an action in cases where pure economic loss was caused negligently. From the Middle Ages (i.e. from more or less the 13th century), when there arose a remedy called 'trespass', which was applicable only in cases of direct forcible injury,

LEGAL LIABILITY: THEORETICAL AND COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF PURE ECONOMIC LOSS The purpose of my thesis is to introduce the concept of pure economic loss and its setting in the jurisdictions of France, England, Germany and the Czech Republic. The comparative study of pure economic loss reveals that granting compensation for economic loss frequently interferes with the economic loss rule (or exclusionary rule), which states that a plaintiff can not recover damages for a pure financial loss. Legal doctrines provide little insight as to why liability should, or should not, be denied. On the other hand, economic models of liability provide some valuable guidance for classifying various categories of economic loss, and identifying cases in which denial of recovery for economic loss would lead to inefficient outcomes. A law and economics analysis shows that a key factor in determining the optimal scope of the economic loss rule is in the relationship between pure economic loss and social loss. Economic loss should be compensable in torts only to the extent that it corresponds to socially relevant loss. A plaintiff cannot recover damages for a purely private economic loss. Our hypothesis is that, although not formally adopting this economic criterion, European courts are attentive to efficiency...

Šiame magistro darbe analizuojama grynai turtinių nuostolių atlyginimo problema. Grynai turtiniai nuostoliai daugumoje valstybių suvokiami kaip trečiųjų asmenų ekonominio pobūdžio nuostoliai, kurie patiriami įvykus deliktui tarp kitų asmenų. Žvelgiant lyginamuoju aspektu, valstybių teisės sistemose yra suformuotos dvi pozicijos šių nuostolių atžvilgiu: liberalioji ir griežtoji. Pirmoji pozicija, leidžianti grynai turtinių nuostolių atlyginimą, vyrauja Prancūzijoje. Tuo tarpu JAV, Anglijoje, Vokietijoje ir Austrijoje yra taikoma grynai ekonominių nuostolių atlyginimo ribojimo taisyklė. Magistro darbo autorė atlikdama lyginamąjį tyrimą, stengėsi išsiaiškinti, kokios priežastys skatina riboti grynai turinių nuostolių atlyginimą, taip pat įvertinti, kurios valstybės pozicija yra racionaliausia ir teisiškai labiausiai pagrįsta. Tiesa, pažymėtina yra tai, kad nors valstybėje vyrauja viena ar kita pozicija, tam tikrais atvejais neapsieinama be pagrindinės taisyklės išimčių. Lietuvoje šiuo klausimu kol kas dar nėra nei teismų praktikos, nei mokslinių diskusijų. Tad autorė, išanalizavusi įstatyminę bazę, pateikia išvadą, kad Lietuvai artimiausia galėtų būti Prancūzijos pozicija. Be lyginamosios valstybių teisės sistemų analizės, magistro darbe pateikiamas ir istorinis ekonominių asmens interesų apsaugos tendencijų tyrimas, siekiant išsiaiškinti, kada atsirado grynai turtinių nuostolių ribojimo taisyklė ir dėl kokių priežasčių. Taip pat paskutinėje magistro darbo dalyje lyginamuoju... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / The thesis ‘Recovery of Pure Economic Loss: Comparative Aspects’ provides a comparative analysis of recovery possibilities of pure economic loss in six different countries, namely the USA, England, Germany, Austria, France and Lithuania, that belong to different legal families and inherit distinct tort law traditions. In most of the countries pure economic loss define economic nature loss of third parties that are experienced in the case of the tort of other persons. The objective of investigation is to evaluate legal rationality of each regulatory system and to estimate which one of them causes least practical problems. In addition, as the position of Lithuania has not yet been settled, the author of the thesis proposes possible directions of the regulation of recovery of pure economic loss by analyzing legal basis of Lithuanian laws. The research consists of three parts each of them dealing with different aspects of the problem. First of all, the concept of pure economic loss is analyzed by trying to define the archetypical features of the mentioned loss and to expose the summarized topics that are discussed in doctrine and courts. The second part of the thesis covers historical investigation of the protection of economic interests and comparative analysis of legal regulation and jurisprudence of recovery of pure economic loss in six mentioned countries. Additionally, at the end of this part the author discusses the possibilities of harmonization of the countries positions... [to full text]

Le préjudice économique pur est celui qui ne résulte ni d’une atteinte à la personne, ni d’une atteinte aux biens et qui génère des conséquences économiques négatives comme c’est le cas du dommage causé à l’économie, ou encore celui du préjudice résultant d’un acte de concurrence déloyale. Cette notion est peu connue du droit français. La pratique montre cependant que certains préjudices économiques relevant de cette définition existent et sont indemnisés.De cette constatation pratique résultent différentes difficultés. Il existe un amalgame entre ce préjudice économique pur et les préjudices économiques qui, au contraire, sont le résultat d’une atteinte à la personne ou aux biens. Cet amalgame nuit à la réparation effective du préjudice économique pur. Plus encore, l’absence de régime juridique adapté emporte une dénaturation des mécanismes de responsabilité civile tant les critères traditionnels de celles-ci sont mis à mal dès qu’il s’agit de réparer un préjudice économique pur. Divers exemples illustrent ces difficultés. Le dommage causé à l’économie, par exemple, ou encore le préjudice subi en matière de concurrence déloyale, pour lesquels le caractère certain est rarement établi. Il conviendrait, dès lors, d’adapter, d’aménager des règles existantes afin de parvenir à une réparation efficace du préjudice économique pur. Participant de ces aménagements, la question, déjà ancienne, des dommages et intérêts punitifs, ou encore le renouvellement de la question de la réparation « économique » en nature par la restitution du « surprofit » comme proposé par certains.Un cadre juridique adapté pourrait ainsi régir les critères d’existence du préjudice économique pur, d’une part, et ses critères d’évaluation, d’autre part. / Pure economic loss is the one that results neither from a personal injury nor from damage to property and generates negative economic consequences, such as the damage caused to the economy, or as the prejudice resulting from an act of unfair competition. This notion is little known to the French law. However, practise shows that some economic prejudices under this definition exist and are compensated for. From this practical ascertainment result several difficulties. There is confusion between pure economic loss and economic damages that, on the contrary, are the result of an injury to person or property. This confusion harms the effective compensation of the pure economic loss. Moreover, the absence of an appropriate legal regime entails a distortion of liability mechanisms, as its traditional criteria are undermined when it comes to repairing a pure economic loss. Various examples illustrate these difficulties: the damage to the economy, for instance, or the injury in terms of unfair competition, for which the certainty is rarely established. Therefore, it would be appropriate to adapt and develop the existing rules in order to achieve effective compensation for pure economic loss. Amongst these developments: the rather already old question of these punitive damages, or the renewal of the issue of « economic » compensation in nature through the restitution of « over profit », as suggested by some. A suitable legal framework could thus govern the existence of pure economic loss criteria on the one hand, and its assessment criteria on the other.

<p>Svensk rätt tillämpar ett så kallat principalansvar. Principalansvar innebär ett ansvar för annans culpa och är med andra ord ett arbetsgivaransvar. Arbetsgivaren skall dock endast ersätta skada som arbetstagaren vållar i tjänsten. Gränsdragningen av vad som skall anses vara ”utfört i tjänsten” är dock inte tydlig i alla situationer. I NJA 2000 s 380 ansågs ett bedrägeri, vilket var utfört av en jurist, inte ha varit utfört i tjänsten. Frågan är dock om tolkningen av ”utfört i tjänsten” i rättsfallet var den mest ändamålsenliga med hänsyn till framtida rättsfall av samma art.</p><p>I uppsatsen redogörs för vad som enligt svensk gällande rätt är att anse som utfört i tjänsten, det vill säga omfånget av rekvisitet. Uppsatsen innehåller även en komparativ del, vari engelsk och tysk rätt behandlas avseende användandet av rekvisitet ”utfört i tjänsten”. Uppsatsen utmynnar i ett ställningstagande huruvida uttrycket enligt författarens mening tolkats rätt eller om det bör tolkas annorlunda mot vad som är fallet idag.</p>

Svensk rätt tillämpar ett så kallat principalansvar. Principalansvar innebär ett ansvar för annans culpa och är med andra ord ett arbetsgivaransvar. Arbetsgivaren skall dock endast ersätta skada som arbetstagaren vållar i tjänsten. Gränsdragningen av vad som skall anses vara ”utfört i tjänsten” är dock inte tydlig i alla situationer. I NJA 2000 s 380 ansågs ett bedrägeri, vilket var utfört av en jurist, inte ha varit utfört i tjänsten. Frågan är dock om tolkningen av ”utfört i tjänsten” i rättsfallet var den mest ändamålsenliga med hänsyn till framtida rättsfall av samma art. I uppsatsen redogörs för vad som enligt svensk gällande rätt är att anse som utfört i tjänsten, det vill säga omfånget av rekvisitet. Uppsatsen innehåller även en komparativ del, vari engelsk och tysk rätt behandlas avseende användandet av rekvisitet ”utfört i tjänsten”. Uppsatsen utmynnar i ett ställningstagande huruvida uttrycket enligt författarens mening tolkats rätt eller om det bör tolkas annorlunda mot vad som är fallet idag.

Damages for Breach of Contractual and Non-Contractual Duty in Civil Law - Abstract The thesis at hand deals with liability for non-performance of a contract and liability in tort. The new Civil Code abandoned the general rule of Sec. 420 of Act No. 40/1964 Coll., which did not distinguish between contractual and non-contractual liability. The new Civil Code thus provides for two different liability regimes depending on whether the wrongdoer and the victim entered into a contract (or similar obligation) or not. While liability in tort is governed by Sec. 2909 and 2910 CC, contractual liability is stipulated in Sec. 2913 CC. The thesis strives to examine this important change in its complexity when emphasis in being put onto the theoretical, comparative and historical context. Firstly, the thesis provides for the basic theoretical background of liability in civil law and looks at the foundations of its division into contract and tort. The author further dives into the topic from a comparative perspective. Given the inspirational sources of the Czech Civil Code, the thesis focuses mainly on German and Austrian approach. The thesis also gives a brief summary of the historical development in the Czech civil law. The main part of the thesis focuses on the relevant provisions, their relationship and conditions for...

Damages for Breach of Contractual and Non-Contractual Duty in Civil Law - Abstract The thesis at hand deals with liability for non-performance of a contract and liability in tort. The new Civil Code abandoned the general rule of Sec. 420 of Act No. 40/1964 Coll., which did not distinguish between contractual and non-contractual liability. The new Civil Code thus provides for two different liability regimes depending on whether the wrongdoer and the victim entered into a contract (or similar obligation) or not. While liability in tort is governed by Sec. 2909 and 2910 CC, contractual liability is stipulated in Sec. 2913 CC. The thesis strives to examine this important change in its complexity when emphasis in being put onto the theoretical, comparative and historical context. Firstly, the thesis provides for the basic theoretical background of liability in civil law and looks at the foundations of its division into contract and tort. The author further dives into the topic from a comparative perspective. Given the inspirational sources of the Czech Civil Code, the thesis focuses mainly on German and Austrian approach. The thesis also gives a brief summary of the historical development in the Czech civil law. The main part of the thesis focuses on the relevant provisions, their relationship and conditions for...

The aim of this thesis is to provide an insight into the topic of causation in law and to acquaint its reader with the common methods of proving the causation before courts. Among the most used methods such as the 'but for' test, this paper focuses on specific aspects of this topic which were introduced to the Czech legal system together with the adoption of the Civil Code 2014. The thesis also includes description and analysis of alternatively used methods of proving 'multiple causation' cases such as the theory of 'loss of chance' and 'pure economic loss'. Among this analysis the comparison between Czech and British legal system is used extensively. The core of this thesis is the effort to confirm or to refute the hypothesis that despite the Czech legal system does not officially recognize distinction between 'factual causation' and 'legal causation' as it is done in the British legal system, methods from both categories are actively used by Czech courts. This paper also aims to analyze whether, due to the fact that recognition between 'factual causation' and 'legal causation' is not explicitly expressed in the Czech legal system, does exist any negative or positive impact on judicial decisions. The last goal of this thesis is to demonstrate whether, similarly as in the British law, the significant number...

Universally complications exist concerning insurance cover for the risks posed by pollution damage. Environmental insurance cover can be procured under first-party or third-party insurance. For the latter, the polluter's statutory or civil liability is required. The determination of liability for compensation, especially delictual liability, remains problematic. The right to the environment in section 24 of the Constitution creates a general duty of care. The introduction of a strict liability regime can be recommended to alleviate the burden of proving fault and contributory negligence. Where there is multiple or cumulative causation or the exact identity of the polluter is unknown, potential solutions regarding the allocation of liability include a pollution-share, joint and several, market-share or, as a last resort, a proportional allocation. Actionable damages should include property damage, pure economic loss, clean-up costs and natural resource damages, including compensation for reduced aesthetic value. Due to the uncertainty and potential magnitude of pollution-related claims, insurers have attempted to avoid or limit these risks by including specific pollution exclusion and limitation clauses in policies. Statutory regulation of policy content and prescribed wording for clauses could address problems relating to the interpretation of policy provisions. Various other issues such as the coverage of gradual pollution, the effect of the various triggers of coverage and the potential long-tail liability of insurer, the lack of information and the unpredictability of the risk cause further complications for both the insured and the insurer. Policies should preferably be issued on a `claims-made' basis linked to retroactive dates. Mandatory third-party insurance to the benefit of a third party should be required within specific high-risk industries, specifically for the benefit of the prejudiced person or an environmental remediation fund. The right of a prejudiced party to claim directly from the polluter's liability insurer should be introduced. Currently, the focus appears to be more on protection and environmental remediation than on civil compensation. There is an urgent need for the development of statutory and civil liability compensation mechanisms and for an increased regulation of insurance policies and practices to ensure effective insurance cover to provide compensation for environmental damage. / Jurisprudence / LL.D.