One of the major challenges hindering advancement of quantum computing is the sensitive nature of the physical systems used to build a quantum computer. One suggestion for improving reliability is a particular type of logic gates, based on Berry's geometric phase, showing improved robustness to external disturbance of the quantum system over the course of a calculation. Such logic gates have previously been shown for the smallest possible two-level qubits. Using the method of adiabatic shortcut we endevour to discover similarly realistic and robust logic gates for units of quantum information in higher dimensions. The example shown in this paper discusses three-level qutrits, but is expected to apply to theoretically unlimited higher dimensions since new geometric complications are expected to arise primarily when moving from a two-level to a multi-level problem.  We here present a set of primitive single-qutrit gates able to perform universal quantum computations if supplemented by a two-qutrit gate. We also present a set of condensed single-qutrit gates for commonly needed operations. By detailing the underlying mathematical framework, relying on the multi-dimensional generalisation of Berry's phase describing the time evolution of degenerate quantum states, we also suggest an easily scalable geometric interpretation of quantum gates in higher dimensions along with visual representation of logic gates using parameters of the physical system to sequentially unlock and manipulate subspaces of the quantum information unit.

Quantum Computation is the quest for more efficient technologies. It can in principal be applied to Complex quantum systems, Quantum chemical systems, Cyber-security, Finance and AI. However, the introductory course in Quantum Mechanics at the Luleå University of Technology (F0047T) does not provide an introduction to Quantum Computation. This thesis investigates educational material and summarizes introductory concepts to Quantum Computation in the form of a compendium, as well as laboratory tasks in the form of simulation exercises as a potential integration of Quantum Computation into the course. The constructed compendium includes a historical overview, applications, introductory level Quantum Computation theory, Quantum Computational algorithms and a section of the Nobel prize in Physics 2022 which is relevant to both fields. An alternative proof of one of the algorithms, the Deutsch Jozsa Algorithm, presented in the compendium was created, which utilizes mathematics more in-line with the course. If the laboratory tasks were to be incorporated into the course, they would replace one of the current three laboratory tasks. Auxiliary aims for the laboratory tasks were thus imposed. These were: be of similar length/difficulty as the three laboratory tasks separately, be inspirational, be within the theoretical scope of the compendium and focus on quantum phenomenon. The laboratory tasks were chosen to center around Quantum Entanglement and the Deutsch Jozsa Algorithm which are to be preformed using IBM's Quantum Logic Circuit simulator 'Quantum Composer'. Both these tasks focus on Quantum phenomenon and are within the theoretical scope of the compendium. The length/difficulty and inspirational aspects of the tasks needs to be verified in a continuation study.

No / We show that the multidimensional Zeno effect combined with non-holonomic control allows one to efficiently protect quantum systems from decoherence by a method similar to classical random coding. The method is applicable to arbitrary error-inducing Hamiltonians and general quantum systems. The quantum encoding approaches the Hamming upper bound for large dimension increases. Applicability of the method is demonstrated with a seven-qubit toy computer.

This dissertation is the collection of a progressive research on the topic of topological quantum computation and information with the focus on the error threshold of the well-known models such as the unpaired Majorana, the toric code, and the planar code. We study the basics of quantum computation and quantum information, and in particular quantum error correction. Quantum error correction provides a tool for enhancing the quantum computation fidelity in the noisy environment of a real world. We begin with a brief introduction to stabilizer codes. The stabilizer formalism of the theory of quantum error correction gives a well-defined description of quantum codes that is used throughout this dissertation. Then, we turn our attention to a quite new subject, namely, topological quantum codes. Topological quantum codes take advantage of the topological characteristics of a physical many-body system. The physical many-body systems studied in the context of topological quantum codes are of two essential natures: they either have intrinsic interaction that self-corrects errors, or are actively corrected to be maintained in a desired quantum state. Examples of the former are the toric code and the unpaired Majorana, while an example for the latter is the surface code. A brief introduction and history of topological phenomena in condensed matter is provided. The unpaired Majorana and the Kitaev toy model are briefly explained. Later we introduce a spin model that maps onto the Kitaev toy model through a sequence of transformations. We show how this model is robust and tolerates local perturbations. The research on this topic, at the time of writing this dissertation, is still incomplete and only preliminary results are represented. As another example of passive error correcting codes with intrinsic Hamiltonian, the toric code is introduced. We also analyze the dynamics of the errors in the toric code known as anyons. We show numerically how the addition of disorder to the physical system underlying the toric code slows down the dynamics of the anyons. We go further and numerically analyze the presence of time-dependent noise and the consequent delocalization of localized errors. The main portion of this dissertation is dedicated to the surface code. We study the surface code coupled to a non-interacting bosonic bath. We show how the interaction between the code and the bosonic bath can effectively induce correlated errors. These correlated errors may be corrected up to some extend. The extension beyond which quantum error correction seems impossible is the error threshold of the code. This threshold is analyzed by mapping the effective correlated error model onto a statistical model. We then study the phase transition in the statistical model. The analysis is in two parts. First, we carry out derivation of the effective correlated model, its mapping onto a statistical model, and perform an exact numerical analysis. Second, we employ a Monte Carlo method to extend the numerical analysis to large system size. We also tackle the problem of surface code with correlated and single-qubit errors by an exact mapping onto a two-dimensional Ising model with boundary fields. We show how the phase transition point in one model, the Ising model, coincides with the intrinsic error threshold of the other model, the surface code.

This thesis describes theoretical and experimental work whose main aim is the development of techniques for using trapped ⁴³Ca⁺ ions for quantum information processing. I present a rate equations model of ⁴³Ca⁺, and compare it with experimental data. The model is then used to investigate and optimise an electron-shelving readout method from a ground-level hyperfine qubit. The process is robust against common experimental imperfections. A shelving fidelity of up to 99.97% is theoretically possible, taking 100 μs. The laser pulse sequence can be greatly simplified for only a small reduction in the fidelity. The simplified method is tested experimentally with fidelities up to 99.8%. The shelving procedure could be applied to other commonly-used species of ion qubit. An entangling two-qubit quantum controlled-phase gate was attempted between a ⁴⁰Ca⁺ and a ⁴³Ca⁺ ion. The experiment did not succeed due to frequent decrystallisation of the ion pair, and strong motional decoherence. The source of the problems was never identified despite significant experimental effort, and the decision was made to suspend the experiments and continue them in an improved ion trap which is under construction. A sequence of pi-pulses, inspired by the Hahn spin-echo, was derived that is capable of greatly reducing dephasing of any qubit. If the qubit precession frequency varies with time as an nth-order polynomial, an (n+1) pulse sequence is theoretically capable of perfectly cancelling the resulting phase error. The sequence is used on a 43Ca+ magnetic-field-sensitive hyperfine qubit, with 20 pulses increasing the coherence time by a factor of 75 compared to an experiment without any spin-echo. In our ambient noise environment the well-known Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill dynamic-decoupling method was found to be comparably effective.

This thesis describes experimental demonstrations of high-fidelity readout of trapped ion quantum bits ("qubits") for quantum information processing. We present direct single-shot measurement of an "optical" qubit stored in a single calcium-40 ion by the process of resonance fluorescence with a fidelity of 99.991(1)% (surpassing the level necessary for fault-tolerant quantum computation). A time-resolved maximum likelihood method is used to discriminate efficiently between the two qubit states based on photon-counting information, even in the presence of qubit decay from one state to the other. It also screens out errors due to cosmic ray events in the detector, a phenomenon investigated in this work. An adaptive method allows the 99.99% level to be reached in 145us average detection time. The readout fidelity is asymmetric: 99.9998% is possible for the "bright" qubit state, while retaining 99.98% for the "dark" state. This asymmetry could be exploited in quantum error correction (by encoding the "no-error" syndrome of the ancilla qubits in the "bright" state), as could the likelihood values computed (which quantify confidence in the measurement outcome). We then extend the work to parallel readout of a four-ion string using a CCD camera and achieve the same 99.99% net fidelity, limited by qubit decay in the 400us exposure time. The behaviour of the camera is characterised by fitting experimental data with a model. The additional readout error due to cross-talk between ion images on the CCD is measured in an experiment designed to remove the effect of qubit decay; a spatial maximum likelihood technique is used to reduce this error to only 0.2(1)x10^{-4} per qubit, despite the presence of ~4% optical cross-talk between neighbouring qubits. Studies of the cross-talk indicate that the readout method would scale with negligible loss of fidelity to parallel readout of ~10,000 qubits with a readout time of ~3us per qubit. Monte-Carlo simulations of the readout process are presented for comparison with experimental data; these are also used to explore the parameter space associated with fluorescence detection and to optimise experimental and analysis parameters. Applications of the analysis methods to readout of other atomic and solid-state qubits are discussed.

Este trabalho consiste na análise de um método de reconstrução/tomografia de estado quântico em ressonância magnética nuclear utilizando pulsos de radiofreqüência não-seletivos, que possuem a propriedade de promover rotações globais do sistema de spins 7/2. Tal método foi aplicado para reconstruir estados relacionados à computação quântica. As operações lógicas e os estados iniciais envolvidos nas operações quânticas foram construídos através de pulsos modulados optimizados numericamente; o processo de optimização, em particular, não foi tratado nesse trabalho. Foram elaborados programas que simulam: a construção dos estados e portas lógicas utilizando os parâmetros dos pulsos modulados; a aplicação dos pulsos de tomografia e a geração dos dados necessários à reconstrução (amplitudes espectrais); construção de estados utilizando pulsos simples para testes das circunstâncias experimentais; o efeitos de possíveis problemas relacionados à amostra ou ao equipamento. Finalmente, foi elaborado um programa para reconstrução do estado a partir da leitura das amplitudes espectrais, que podem ser obtidas a partir dos programas relacionados no segundo item, ou experimentalmente. As implementações experimentais foram realizadas medindo sinais de RMN de núcleos de 133Cs, localizados em um cristal líquido, que, por possuírem spin 7/2, devido às interações Zeeman e quadrupolar elétrica, apresentam sete linhas espectrais distintas para transições entre níveis energéticos adjacentes; logo, é possível tratar esses núcleos como sistemas de 3 q-bits. Foram construídos estados pseudo-puros e aplicada uma das portas Toffoli. Além disso, uma discussão do algoritmo quântico de busca de Grover no contexto da Ressonância Magnética Nuclear é apresentada para uma futura implementação. / This work describes a quantum state tomography method in nuclear magnetic resonance using nonselective radiofrequency pulses that cause global rotations of spin 7/2 systems. This method was applied to tomograph states related to quantum computation. Numerically optimized modulated pulses allowed building the initial states and the logical operations involved in the quantum operations; particularly, the optimization process was not treated in this work. Several programs were constructed that simulate: o the construction of the quantum states and the logical operations by means of the modulated pulses parameters; o the application of the tomography pulses and the generation of the necessary data for tomography (spectral amplitudes); o the construction of the states using simple pulses for experimental condition tests; o the effects of possible problems related to the samples or equipments. Finally, a quantum state tomography program was elaborated to read the spectral amplitudes, which can be obtained from the programs related to the second item, or experimentally. The experimental implementations were performed measuring the NMR signals from spin 7/2 133Cs nuclei located in a liquid crystal under Zeeman and quadrupolar electric interactions. The NMR spectrum of these nuclei, under these interactions and located in an oriented sample, present 7 spectral lines for transitions between adjacent energetic levels; with this, it is possible to treat it like a 3 q-bits system. Pseudo-pure states were constructed and one Toffoli gate was applied. Furthermore, a discussion about the Grover\'s quantum search algorithm in the nuclear magnetic resonance context was presented for future implementation.

O objetivo principal da presente Tese é expor um método de Tomografia de Estado Quântico desenvolvido para ser aplicado em sistemas de núcleos quadrupolares isolados. O espaço de Hilbert de tais sistemas pode ser usado para processar a informação quântica de um sistema equivalente constituído por vários q-bits. O método proposto baseia-se na aplicação de pulsos de radiofrqüência não-seletivos que possuem a propriedade de promover rotações globais do estado quântico do sistema. Utilizando uma descrição analítica dessas rotações foi possível generalizar o método proposto para núcleos quadrupolares com qualquer número quântico de spin. O método também pode ser adaptado para sistemas de núcleos acoplados, embora para esses casos seja necessário utilizar períodos de evolução sob a hamiltoniana de interação livre para determinar alguns dos elementos da correspondente matriz densidade. Como aplicação do método de Tomografia de Estado Quântico, utilizaram-se núcleos de 23Na dissolvidos em um cristal líquido liotrópico para obter os resultados experimentais das implementações do algoritmo de Deutsch e do algoritmo de busca de Grover, além da medida da dinâmica de relaxação de vários estados pseudo-puros. Também foram realizadas simulações do método proposto para o caso de um sistema quadrupolar de spin 7/2 e para três spins 1/2 homonucleares acoplados. / The main purpose of the present thesis is to propose a Quantum State Tomography method developed to be applied in quadrupolar isolated nuclei systems. The Hilbert space of such systems can be used to process the quantum information of an equivalent system formed by many qubits. The proposed method is based on the application of non-selective radiofrequency pulses that produce global rotations of the system quantum state. Using an analytical description of those rotations, it was possible to generalize the proposed method to quadrupolar nuclei with any spin quantum number. The method can also be adapted to coupled nuclear systems, although in such cases it is necessary the use of evolution periods under the free interaction hamiltonian in order to determine some of the density matrix elements. As an application of the method, 23Na nuclei dissolved in a lyotropic liquid crystal were used to obtain the experimental results of the Deutsch and Grover algorithms, together with the measurement of the relaxation dynamics of some pseudo-pure states. Simulations of the proposed method applied to the quadrupolar spin 7/2 nucleus and to three homonuclear coupled spin 1/2 were also obtained.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de NÃvel Superior / O presente trabalho à divido em duas partes. Na primeira, a utilizaÃÃo do interferÃmetro de Sagnac em informaÃÃo quÃntica à analisada atravÃs da aplicaÃÃo do mesmo em trÃs problemas: MediÃÃo livre de interaÃÃo, distribuiÃÃo quÃntica de chaves e compartilhamento de segredo. Para a mediÃÃo livre de interaÃÃo, dois sistemas usando o Sagnac foram propostos. Considerando detectores ideais e ausÃncia de perdas, um deles apresenta probabilidade de sucesso de 25% por fÃton consumido, enquanto que o segundo apresenta probabilidade de determinar corretamente a presenÃa do objeto prÃxima a 100% por fÃton consumido. Para a distribuiÃÃo quÃntica de chaves foi proposta uma configuraÃÃo diferente das existentes, sendo a principal diferenÃa a ausÃncia de retorno do pulso enviado, como ocorre nos sistemas com Sagnac anteriormente propostos. Isto evita ataques do tipo Cavalo de TrÃia. Por fim, foi proposta uma configuraÃÃo Ãptica que permite que um segredo compartilhado por cinco pessoas, localmente distantes, seja usado apenas quando todos os cinco concordarem. A segunda parte da dissertaÃÃo apresenta um estudo analÃtico e numÃrico da variaÃÃo do entrelaÃamento de estados bipartites de qubits quando da propagaÃÃo dos mesmos em canais quÃnticos ruidosos. Em particular, foi encontrada uma fÃrmula exata que relaciona os entrelaÃamentos dos estados na entrada e saÃda do canal, quando o estado na entrada à puro e o canal à modelado pela interaÃÃo do estado bipartite (sinal) com um qubit (estado do canal) atravÃs de uma operaÃÃo unitÃria canÃnica. / This work is divided into two parts. In the first one, the use of the Sagnac interferometer in quantum information is analyzed applying it in three problems: interaction-free measurement, quantum key distribution, and secret sharing. For the interaction-free measurement two systems using Sagnac interferometer were proposed. Considering ideal detectors and loss less devices, one of them has a success probability of 25% for each photon used while the other presents the probability of getting success to detect the presence of the object close to 100% for each photon used. For quantum key distribution, it was proposed a different setup, where the main difference is that the pulse sent by the transmitter does not come back to him/her as happen with the systems based on Sagnac proposed before. This avoids the Trojan horse attack. Finally, it was proposed an optical configuration where it is possible to share a secret among five users, locally distant, that could be used only when all five persons agreed. The second part of this dissertation presents an analytical and numerical study of the entanglement variation of bipartite states of qubits during propagation in a quantum noisy channel. Particularly, it was found an exactly formula which relates the entanglement of states in the input and output of the channel, when the input state is pure and the channel is modeled by a canonical unitary operation.

O objetivo principal da presente Tese é expor um método de Tomografia de Estado Quântico desenvolvido para ser aplicado em sistemas de núcleos quadrupolares isolados. O espaço de Hilbert de tais sistemas pode ser usado para processar a informação quântica de um sistema equivalente constituído por vários q-bits. O método proposto baseia-se na aplicação de pulsos de radiofrqüência não-seletivos que possuem a propriedade de promover rotações globais do estado quântico do sistema. Utilizando uma descrição analítica dessas rotações foi possível generalizar o método proposto para núcleos quadrupolares com qualquer número quântico de spin. O método também pode ser adaptado para sistemas de núcleos acoplados, embora para esses casos seja necessário utilizar períodos de evolução sob a hamiltoniana de interação livre para determinar alguns dos elementos da correspondente matriz densidade. Como aplicação do método de Tomografia de Estado Quântico, utilizaram-se núcleos de 23Na dissolvidos em um cristal líquido liotrópico para obter os resultados experimentais das implementações do algoritmo de Deutsch e do algoritmo de busca de Grover, além da medida da dinâmica de relaxação de vários estados pseudo-puros. Também foram realizadas simulações do método proposto para o caso de um sistema quadrupolar de spin 7/2 e para três spins 1/2 homonucleares acoplados. / The main purpose of the present thesis is to propose a Quantum State Tomography method developed to be applied in quadrupolar isolated nuclei systems. The Hilbert space of such systems can be used to process the quantum information of an equivalent system formed by many qubits. The proposed method is based on the application of non-selective radiofrequency pulses that produce global rotations of the system quantum state. Using an analytical description of those rotations, it was possible to generalize the proposed method to quadrupolar nuclei with any spin quantum number. The method can also be adapted to coupled nuclear systems, although in such cases it is necessary the use of evolution periods under the free interaction hamiltonian in order to determine some of the density matrix elements. As an application of the method, 23Na nuclei dissolved in a lyotropic liquid crystal were used to obtain the experimental results of the Deutsch and Grover algorithms, together with the measurement of the relaxation dynamics of some pseudo-pure states. Simulations of the proposed method applied to the quadrupolar spin 7/2 nucleus and to three homonuclear coupled spin 1/2 were also obtained.