The photocathode is one of the key components of particle accelerator facilities that provides electrons for experiments in many disciplines such as biomedicine, security imaging, and condensed matter physics. The requirements for the electron emitting material, the so-called photocathode, are rather high because these materials should provide a high quantum efficiency, a low thermal emittance, a fast response, and a long operational lifetime. At present, none of the state-of-the-art photocathodes can fully meet all the desired requirements. Therefore, new materials that can be used as potential photocathodes are urgently needed for future developments in accelerator research. Semiconductor photocathodes such as cesium telluride are the preferred materials in particle accelerators. These photocathodes provide high quantum efficiencies of above 10 %, making them highly attractive. The crystal growth of cesium telluride, as a compound semiconductor photocathode, requires the deposition of cesium and tellurium on a suitable substrate with an ideal chemical ratio, which seems elaborate and difficult to handle. In contrast, III-V semiconductors, such as gallium arsenide and gallium nitride (GaN), represent another type of semiconductor photocathode. These commercially available semiconductors are already grown on a substrate and only require a thin film of cesium and optional oxygen to obtain a photocathode. An atomically clean surface is necessary to achieve a negative electron affinity surface, which is the main prerequisite for high quantum efficiency. In this work, p-GaN grown on sapphire by metal-organic chemical vapor deposition, was wet chemically cleaned, and transferred into an ultra-high vacuum chamber, where it underwent a subsequent thermal cleaning. The cleaned p-GaN samples were activated with Cs to obtain p-GaN:Cs photocathodes and their performance was monitored with respect to their quality, especially concerning their quantum efficiency and storage lifetime. The surface topography and morphology were examined ex-situ by atomic force microscopy and scanning electron microscopy in combination with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Treatments at different temperatures resulted in various quantum efficiency values and storage lifetimes. Moderate temperatures of 400–500 °C were found to be more beneficial for the p-GaN surface quality, which was reflected by achieving higher quantum efficiency values. After the thermal cleaning, the samples were activated with a thin layer of cesium at an average pressure of 1 x E-9 mbar. The surface morphology was studied with scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy after the samples were thermally cleaned and activated with cesium. The results showed that the surface appeared inhomogeneous when the samples were cleaned at a high temperature above 600 °C. A thermal cleaning from the back side through the substrate represented another possibility but did not yield higher quantum efficiency values. An in-situ analysis method facilitates following and understanding the changes in the surface electronic states before, during, and after any treatment of p-GaN:Cs photocathodes. For this purpose, an X-ray photoelectron spectrometer was applied that was built into an ultra-high vacuum system to prepare and characterize photocathodes. It allowed the in-situ monitoring of the photocathode surfaces beginning immediately after their cleaning and throughout the activation and degradation processes. The realization of the adaption of an X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy chamber to the preparation chamber presented a significant constructional challenge. Thus, this work paid special attention to the technical aspects of in-situ sample transportation between these chambers without leaving the ultra-high vacuum environment. The p-GaN surface was cleaned with different solutions and studied by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy, revealing that cleaning with a so-called 'piranha' solution in combination with rinsing in ethanol works best for the p-GaN surface. A cleaning step that solely uses ethanol is also possible and represents a simple cleaning procedure that is manageable in all laboratories. Afterward, the cleaned p-GaN samples underwent a subsequential thermal vacuum cleaning at various temperatures to achieve an atomically clean surface. Each treatment step was followed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis without leaving the ultra-high vacuum environment, revealing residual oxygen and carbon on the p- GaN surface. A thermal treatment under vacuum did not entirely remove these organic contaminations, although the thermal cleaning reduced their peak intensities. The remaining oxygen and carbon contaminants were assumed to be residuals derived from the metal-organic chemical vapor deposition process. After the cesium activation, a shift toward a higher binding energy was observed in the X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy spectra of the related photoemission peaks. This shift indicated that the cesium was successfully adsorbed to the p-GaN surface. Before the cesium activation, adventitious carbon at a binding energy of approximately 284 eV was found, which was also present after the cesium activation but did not shift in its binding energy. It was also shown that the presence of remaining carbon significantly influenced the photocathode’s quality. After the cesium deposition, a new carbon species at a higher binding energy (approximately 286 eV) appeared in the carbon 1s spectrum. This new species showed a higher binding energy than adventitious carbon and was identified as a cesium carbide species. This cesium carbide species grew over time, resulting in islands on the surface. The X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy data facilitated the elucidation of the critical role of thiscesium carbide species in photocathode degradation. Typically, the quantum efficiency of photocathodes decays exponentially. Conversely, an immense quantum efficiency loss was observed after the p-GaN:Cs photocathodes were studied by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The origin of the quantum efficiency loss derived from X-rays as an external influence and was not caused by the sample’s transportation. Therefore, potential X-ray damages to the p-GaN:Cs photocathodes were investigated. These experiments showed that the adsorbed cesium and its adhesion to the p-GaN surface were strongly influenced by X-ray irradiation. The cesium photoemission peaks shifted toward a lower binding energy, while the relative cesium concentration did not. This shift indicated that X-ray irradiation accelerated the external aging of the p-GaN photocathodes and thus it was proposed to use lower X-ray beam power or cool the samples to prevent X-ray damage to cesiated photocathodes. This work shows that an exclusive activation with cesium is feasible and that a re-activation of the same sample is possible. Quantum efficiency values of 1–12% were achieved when the p-GaN, grown on sapphire, was activated. The capability of an X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis allowed the in-situ monitoring of the photocathode surface and shed light on the surface compositions that changed during the photocathodes’ degradation process.

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We investigate the signal and noise transform characteristics from the projection domain to the image domain in a linear systems theory framework and predictions of the DQE within this framework are made. A simulation study of a photon counting silicon detector is made from which the energy information is used in order to produce synthetic monoenergetic images. From these images the MTF, NPS, and DQE are estimated and are compared to the respective quantities predicted from the model. Within this model we find that the DQE in the projection domain has similar global characteristics as in the image domain, and that the sampling step in the imaging chain affects the DQE close to the zero frequency. / Vi undersöker hur signal och brus egenskaper transformeras från projektionsdomänen till bilddomänen i ett linjärt-skiftinvariant system och förutsägelser av DQE inom detta ramverk görs. Vidare görs en simuleringsstudie av en fotonräknande kiseldetektor från vilken energiinformationen används för att producera syntetiska monoenergetiska bilder. Från dessa bilder uppskattas MTF, NPS och DQE och jämförs med respektive storheter förutspådda från modellen. Inom modellen finner vi att DQE i projektionsdomänen har liknande globala egenskaper som i bilddomänen, och att samplingssteget i bildkedjan påverkar DQE nära nollfrekvensen.

General lighting with InGaN light emitting diodes (LEDs) as light sources is of particular interest in terms of energy savings and related environmental benefits due to high lighting efficiency, long lifetime, and Hg-free nature. Incandescent and fluorescent light sources are used for general lighting almost everywhere. But their lighting efficiency is very limited: only 20-30 lm/W for incandescent lighting bulb, approximately 100 lm/W for fluorescent lighting. State-of-the-art InGaN LEDs with a luminous efficacy of over 200 lm/W at room temperature have been reported. However, the goal of replacing the incandescent and fluorescent lights with InGaN LEDs is still elusive since their lighting efficiency decreases substantially when the injection current increases beyond certain values (typically 10-50 Acm-2). In order to improve the electroluminescence (EL) performance at high currents for InGaN LEDs, two approaches have been undertaken in this thesis. First, we explored the preparation and characterization of non-polar and semi-polar GaN substrates (including a-plane, m-plane and semi-polar planes). These substrates serve as promising alternatives to the commonly used c-plane, with the benefit of a reduced polarization-induced electric field and therefore higher quantum efficiency. It is demonstrated that LEDs on m-plane GaN substrates have inherently higher EL quantum efficiency and better efficiency retention ability at high injection currents than their c-plane counterparts. Secondly, from a device structure level, we explored the possible origins of the EL efficiency degradation at high currents in InGaN LEDs and investigated the effect of hot electrons on EL of LEDs by varying the barrier height of electron blocking layer. A first-order theoretical model is proposed to explain the effect of electron overflow caused by hot electron transport across the LED active region on LED EL performance. The calculation results are in agreement with experimental observations. Furthermore, a novel structure called a “staircase electron injector” (SEI) is demonstrated to effectively thermalize hot electrons, thereby reducing the reduction of EL efficiency due to electron overflow. The SEI features several InyGa1-yN layers, with their In fraction (y) increasing in a stepwise manner, starting with a low value at the first step near the junction with n-GaN.

GaN-Nanodrähte können mit einer hohen strukturellen Perfektion auf verschiedenen kristallinen und amorphen Substraten gewachsen werden. Sie bieten somit faszinierende Möglichkeiten, sowohl zur Untersuchung von fundamentalen Eigenschaften des Materialsystems, als auch in der Anwendung in optoelektronischen Bauteilen. Obwohl bereits verschiedene Prototypen solcher Bauteile vorgestellt wurden, sind viele grundlegende Eigenschaften von GaN-Nanodrähten noch ungeklärt, darunter die interne Quanteneffizienz (IQE), welche ein wichtiges Merkmal für optoelektronische Anwendungen darstellt. Die vorliegende Arbeit präsentiert eine detaillierte Untersuchung der Rekombinationsdynamik von Exzitonen, in selbst-induzierten und selektiv gewachsenen GaN Nanodraht-Proben, welche mit Molekularstrahlepitaxie hergestellt wurden. Die zeitaufgelösten Photolumineszenz (PL)-Experimente werden durch Simulationen ergänzt, welche auf Ratengleichungs-Modellen basieren. Es stellt sich heraus, dass die Populationen von freien und gebundenen Exzitonen gekoppelt sind und zwischen 10 und 300 K von einem nichtstrahlenden Kanal beeinflusst werden. Die Untersuchung von Proben mit unterschiedlichem Nanodraht-Durchmesser und Koaleszenzgrad zeigt, dass weder die Nanodraht-Oberfläche, noch Defekte als Folge von Koaleszenz diesen nichtstrahlenden Kanal induzieren. Daraus lässt sich folgern, dass die kurze Zerfallszeit von Exzitonen in GaN-Nanodrähten durch Punktdefekte verursacht wird, welche die IQE bei 10 K auf 20% limitieren. Der häufig beobachtete biexponentiellen PL-Zerfall des Donator-gebundenen Exzitons wird analysiert und es zeigt sich, dass die langsame Komponente durch eine Kopplung mit Akzeptoren verursacht wird. Motiviert durch Experimente, welche eine starke Abhängigkeit der PL-Intensität vom Nanodraht-Durchmesser zeigen, wird die externen Quanteneffizienz von geordneten Nanodraht-Feldern mit Hilfe numerischer Simulationen der Absorption und Extraktion von Licht in diesen Strukturen untersucht. / GaN nanowires (NWs) can be fabricated with a high structural perfection on various crystalline and amorphous substrates. They offer intriguing possibilities for both fundamental investigations of the GaN material system as well as applications in optoelectronic devices. Although prototype devices based on GaN NWs have been presented already, several fundamental questions remain unresolved to date. In particular, the internal quantum efficiency (IQE), an important basic figure of merit for optoelectronic applications, is essentially unknown for GaN NWs. This thesis presents a detailed investigation of the exciton dynamics in GaN NWs using continuous-wave and time-resolved photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy. Spontaneously formed ensembles and ordered arrays of GaN NWs grown by molecular-beam epitaxy are examined. The experiments are combined with simulations based on the solution of rate equation systems to obtain new insights into the recombination dynamics in GaN NWs at low temperatures. In particular, the free and bound exciton states in GaN NWs are found to be coupled and affected by a nonradiative channel between 10 and 300 K. The investigation of samples with different NW diameters and coalescence degrees conclusively shows that the dominating nonradiative channel is neither related to the NW surface nor to coalescence-induced defects. Hence, we conclude that nonradiative point defects are the origin of the fast recombination dynamics in GaN NWs, and limit the IQE of the investigated samples to about 20% at cryogenic temperatures. We also demonstrate that the frequently observed biexponential decay for the donor-bound exciton originates from a coupling with the acceptor-bound exciton state in the GaN NWs. Motivated by an experimentally observed, strong dependence of the PL intensity of ordered GaN NW arrays on the NW diameter, we perform numerical simulations of the light absorption and extraction to explore the external quantum efficiency of these samples.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo o desenvolvimento de um conjunto de procedimentos de avaliação da qualidade de equipamentos mamográficos a partir do processamento de imagens digitais obtidas com a exposição radiográfica de objetos de testes (phantoms) padronizados. O sistema desenvolvido permite a avaliação de diversos parâmetros físicos de qualidade da imagem radiográfica com simplicidade e rapidez, sem abrir mão da precisão, com o mínimo tempo e uso dos equipamentos. Os principais parâmetros avaliados relacionados à qualidade de um sistema de imagem são: a resolução espacial - pela medida da função de transferência de modulação (MTF) - o contraste - medido pela curva sensitométrica e o ruído - pela medida da densidade espectral de ruído (NPS). Dessa forma, o sistema desenvolvido atende às recomendações do ICRU (International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements), que trata das diretrizes para controle de qualidade de imagens radiográficas em todo o mundo. A partir da medida desses três parâmetros de qualidade é possível também aferir a eficiência de detecção quântica (DQE) do sistema de imagem mamográfica, que permite uma avaliação completa da qualidade da imagem em função da dose recebida pelo paciente. Os resultados obtidos comprovam a possibilidade da aplicação prática do sistema desenvolvido, o qual proporciona uma avaliação completa da qualidade da imagem formada pelo equipamento. Todos os resultados apresentaram baixa estimativa de erro, fundamentados pela análise da incerteza nos processos de medida. Além disso, a avaliação por meio do DQE permitiu realizar uma comparação entre os sistemas mamográficos envolvidos nessa pesquisa. Assim, com base nesses resultados é possível afirmar que o sistema computacional desenvolvido pode desempenhar um papel fundamental na avaliação da qualidade em sistemas de imagens mamográficas. / The aim of this work is to develop a set of procedures for quality assurance of mammographic equipment by the digital image processing of radiographic images of standard test objects (phantoms) acquired by the radiographic equipment. It allows the evaluation of several physical parameters of the radiographic image quality by a simple and quick procedure, with good accuracy, using the equipment the shortest time as possible. The main evaluated parameters related to the quality of an imaging system are: spatial resolution - by measuring the modulation transfer function (MTF) - image contrast - by the measurement of the H&D curve and noise - evaluated by the noise power spectrum (NPS). Thus, it attends the recommendations of the ICRU (International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements), which deals as the guidelines for quality assurance of radiographic images all over the world. Through these quality parameters is possible to measure the detective quantum efficiency (DQE) of any mammographic system, which allows a full evaluation of the image quality related to the dose absorbed by the patient. The results confirm the possibility of the practical application of the developed system, which provides a full evaluation of the image quality, acquired by the mammographic equipment. All results showed low error estimation, substantiated by the analysis of the uncertainty in measurements procedures. Moreover, the evaluation through the DQE allowed to perform a comparison of mammography systems involved in this research. Thus, based on these results, it is possible to confirm that its system can perform a fundamental part of the quality assurance in mammographic images system.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo o desenvolvimento de um conjunto de procedimentos de avaliação da qualidade de equipamentos mamográficos a partir do processamento de imagens digitais obtidas com a exposição radiográfica de objetos de testes (phantoms) padronizados. O sistema desenvolvido permite a avaliação de diversos parâmetros físicos de qualidade da imagem radiográfica com simplicidade e rapidez, sem abrir mão da precisão, com o mínimo tempo e uso dos equipamentos. Os principais parâmetros avaliados relacionados à qualidade de um sistema de imagem são: a resolução espacial - pela medida da função de transferência de modulação (MTF) - o contraste - medido pela curva sensitométrica e o ruído - pela medida da densidade espectral de ruído (NPS). Dessa forma, o sistema desenvolvido atende às recomendações do ICRU (International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements), que trata das diretrizes para controle de qualidade de imagens radiográficas em todo o mundo. A partir da medida desses três parâmetros de qualidade é possível também aferir a eficiência de detecção quântica (DQE) do sistema de imagem mamográfica, que permite uma avaliação completa da qualidade da imagem em função da dose recebida pelo paciente. Os resultados obtidos comprovam a possibilidade da aplicação prática do sistema desenvolvido, o qual proporciona uma avaliação completa da qualidade da imagem formada pelo equipamento. Todos os resultados apresentaram baixa estimativa de erro, fundamentados pela análise da incerteza nos processos de medida. Além disso, a avaliação por meio do DQE permitiu realizar uma comparação entre os sistemas mamográficos envolvidos nessa pesquisa. Assim, com base nesses resultados é possível afirmar que o sistema computacional desenvolvido pode desempenhar um papel fundamental na avaliação da qualidade em sistemas de imagens mamográficas. / The aim of this work is to develop a set of procedures for quality assurance of mammographic equipment by the digital image processing of radiographic images of standard test objects (phantoms) acquired by the radiographic equipment. It allows the evaluation of several physical parameters of the radiographic image quality by a simple and quick procedure, with good accuracy, using the equipment the shortest time as possible. The main evaluated parameters related to the quality of an imaging system are: spatial resolution - by measuring the modulation transfer function (MTF) - image contrast - by the measurement of the H&D curve and noise - evaluated by the noise power spectrum (NPS). Thus, it attends the recommendations of the ICRU (International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements), which deals as the guidelines for quality assurance of radiographic images all over the world. Through these quality parameters is possible to measure the detective quantum efficiency (DQE) of any mammographic system, which allows a full evaluation of the image quality related to the dose absorbed by the patient. The results confirm the possibility of the practical application of the developed system, which provides a full evaluation of the image quality, acquired by the mammographic equipment. All results showed low error estimation, substantiated by the analysis of the uncertainty in measurements procedures. Moreover, the evaluation through the DQE allowed to perform a comparison of mammography systems involved in this research. Thus, based on these results, it is possible to confirm that its system can perform a fundamental part of the quality assurance in mammographic images system.

Ce travail de thèse porte sur l’étude des propriétés optiques de nanofils InP et d’hétérostructures nanofils InAs/InP épitaxiés sur substrat silicium. Ce travail de thèse a été réalisé principalement dans le cadre du projet ANR «INSCOOP». / This thesis is focused upon the experimental investigation of optical properties of InAs/InP NW heterostructures by means of photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy. First, it was demonstrated that the host-substrate may have significant impacts on the optical properties of pure InP NWs, as due to the strain, created by the difference in the LTECs of the NWs and the host-substrate, as due to some other surface effects. Next, the optical properties of such nanowire heterostructures as quantum rod (QRod) and radial quantum well (QWell) NWs were investigated. The features of obtained spectra were explained using theoretical simulation of similar NW heterostructures. The polarization properties of single InP NWs, InAs/InP QWell-NWs, InAs/InP QRod-NWs and ensemble of the InAs well ordered NWs were studied at different temperatures. Further, we report on the evidences of the strain-induced piezoelectric field in WZ InAs/InP QRod-NWs. Finally, PL QE of NW heterostructures and their planar analogues are measured by means of a PL setup coupled to an integrating sphere. In general, the obtained knowledge of the optical and mechanical properties of pure InP NWs and InAs/InP NW heterostructures will improve understanding of the electrical and mechanical processes taking place in semiconductor NW heterostructures and will serve for the fabrication of future nanodevice applications.

The recent advancement of superconducting nano devices has allowed for making a Superconducting Nanowire Single Photon Detector (SNSPD), whose extraordinary features have strongly motivated the research community to exploit it in many practical applications. In this thesis, an experimental setup for testing the SNSPD has been established. It contains an in-house packaging that meets the requirements of RF/microwave and optoelectronic characterizations. The quantum efficiency and detection efficiency measurements have confirmed that our approach is satisfactory. The dark count performance has reached the anticipated level. The factors affecting rise and fall times of the photoresponses are addressed. Based on the successful setup, the characterizations including dc, small signal ac measurements have been undertaken. The measurements are aimed at quantitatively investigating Cooper pair density in the superconducting nanowire. The experimental method involves a two-step, small signal S-parameter measurement either in the presence or absence of optical powers. The subsequent measurements by varying the temperature and dc bias current have achieved remarkable understanding on the physical properties of SNSPD nanowires. Then, the electrically induced nonlinearity is studied via the large signal RF and Microwave measurements. The experiments are a set of one-tone and two-tone measurements, in which either the RF driving power is varied at a fixed frequency, or vice versa. Two major nonlinear microwave circuit analysis methods, i.e. time-domain transient and hybrid-domain harmonic balance analysis, are employed. The simulation result reveals the optimized conditions of reaching the desired nonlinearity. Finally, we have successfully measured the optoelectronic mixing products in an electrically pumped optoelectronic mixer, which has identical structures as that of the SNSPD. The experiments confirm that this mixer is not only sensitive to the classical light intensities, but also to that of the single photon level. Meanwhile, the quantum conversion matrices is derived to interpret the quantum optoelectronic mixing effects.