A strain of Trichomonas vaginalis infected with a double-stranded RNA virus showed pronounced cytopathology in the form of giant syncytia generated by the recruitment of single cells. The giant cells ultimately lysed, releasing virus into the culture medium. In the infected cells, clusters of electron-dense particles resembling viral structures were found in the cytoplasm. In addition, distinctive inclusions composed of similar particles were present in the nuclei of some cells. Double-stranded viral RNA of 5.5 kbp was demonstrated in both cytoplasmic and nuclear fractions from these cells. Viral particles collected from the cell-free culture supernatant were of the same shape and size as the RNA virus isolated from a strain of T. vaginalis described previously (Wang and Wang, Journal of Biological Chemistry, 260: 3697-3702, 1985; Wang and Wang, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A. 83: 7956-7986) which does not show this cytopathology.

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A key goal of modern evolutionary biology is the identification of genes or genome regions that have been targeted by natural selection. Methods for detecting natural selection utilise the information sampled in contemporary gene sequences and test for deviation from the null hypothesis of neutrality. One such method is the McDonald Kreitman test (MK test), which detects the the molecular 'footprint' left by natural selection by considering the frequency of observed mutations within the sampled population. In this thesis I investigate the applicability of the MK test to viral populations and develop several new methods based on the original MK test. In chapter 2, I use a combination of simulation and methodological improvements to show that the MK test can have low error when applied to analysis of RNA virus populations. Then, in chapter 3, I develop an extension of the MK test with the purpose of estimating rates of adaptive fixation for all genes of the human influenza A virus subtypes H1N1 and H3N2. My results are consistent with previous studies on selection in influenza virus populations, and provide a new perspective on the evolutionary dynamics of human influenza virus. In chapter 4 I develop a formal statistical framework based, on the MK test, for calculating the number of non neutral sites at any frequency range in the site frequency spectrum. In this framework, I introduce a new method for reconstructing the site frequency spectrum that incorporates sampling error and allows for the inclusion of prior knowledge. Using this new framework I show that the majority of nucleotide sites in hepatitis C virus sequences sampled during chronic infection represent deleterious mutations. Finally, in chapter 5 I use the generalised framework introduced in chapter 4 to develop a statistic for evaluating the deleterious mutation load of a population. I apply this test sequences that represent 96 RNA virus genes and show that my approach has comparable power to equivalent phylogenetic methods. In this thesis I have developed computationally efficient methods for analysis of genetic data from virus populations. It is my hope that these methods will become useful given the explosion in sequence data that has accompanied recent improvements in sequencing technology.

No presente trabalho, investigamos a filodinâmica de três modelos virais diferentes, utilizando técnicas baseadas em verossimilhança e inferência bayesiana. Dois desses são flavivírus com genoma de RNA fita simples e senso positivo. O terceiro é um bunyavírus com genoma tri-segmentado de RNA fita simples com senso negativo. Estes diferentes modelos permitiram estudar diferentes mecanismos promotores de diversidade viral, reagrupamento de segmentos genômicos (shift) e mutação (drift), que atuam em diferentes granularidades. Descrevemos pela primeira vez o espalhamento geográfico das linhagens de vírus Zika (ZIKV) em um nível continental, assim como ocorrência de recombinação e associação entre padrões de glicosilação e vetores. Para o flavivírus da encefalite transmitida por carrapatos (TBEV), investigamos seu espalhamento e encontramos evidências que corroboram a hipótese de circulação viral restrita a focos na Europa central. As análises sobre o vírus da Febre da Grande Fenda Africana (RVFV) apontaram a ocorrência de reagrupamento de segmentos genômicos e também ajudaram a elucidar sua dispersão do leste do continente africano para o oeste, encontrando-se diversas introduções no Senegal e Mauritânia. Aparentemente, este vírus teve a entrada facilitada nesses países por uma região que funciona como um centro de dispersão (hub) por ser encontro de rotas migratórias de animais. Ademais, investigamos a ocorrência de rearranjos de segmentos genômicos de RVFV e também estudamos as diferenças nas dinâmicas evolutivas de cada segmento. / In this study, we investigated the phylodynamics of three different viral models, using techniques based on maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference methods. Two of these viruses are flaviviruses, whose genomes are formed by a single-stranded positive-sense RNA molecule. The third is a Bunyavirus with tri-segmented single-stranded RNA genome with negative sense. These different models allowed us to investigate two different mechanisms to promote viral diversity, (i) recombination of genomic segments (\"shift\") and (ii) mutation (\"drift\"), therefore exploring different levels of granularity of evolutionary process. We described for the first time the geographic spread of Zika virus (ZIKV) strains in a continental level, as well as, the occurrence of recombination and association between glycosylation patterns and vectors. For the other Flavivirus, tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), we investigated its spreading and found evidences to support the hypothesis that viral circulation is very constrained by the foci in central Europe. The analyses about the Rift Valley Fever Virus (RVFV) revealed the occurrence of reassortment of genomic segments and their dispersal from eastern Africa to the west, with several introductions to Senegal and Mauritania. Apparently, the entry of RVFV in these countries was facilitated by the region of Kedougou, where several migratory routes of animals converge. This place maybe works as a hub to spread RVFV for West Africa. Moreover, we also investigated the differences in evolutionary dynamics of each genomic segment of RVFV.

A proteína de matriz do Virus Respiratório Sincicial humano foi o foco deste trabalho. Verificamos que o gene de matriz possui sítios internos de poliadenilação, sinais de instabilidade de RNA, baixo índice de adaptação de codons (CAI) e conteúdo GC, que podem impedir a expressão gênica vitro. Quando clonado sob controle do promotor de CMVie, o gene selvagem não apresenta expressão detectável, enquanto um gene sintético com a sequência do gene de matriz otimizada apresenta altos níveis de expressão em células transfectadas. Esse alto nível de expressão permitiu a confirmação da presença da proteína M no núcleo no início de sua expressão, por análise em microscopio confocal de varredura a laser, além de sua associação a membranas em regiões conhecidas como lipid rafts. Também foi observado que a proteína M é capaz de associar à proteína tropomiosina. Ainda foram analisados os possíveis domínios funcionais através de expressão de variantes da proteína M com deleções de trechos da proteína. Finalmente foi analisada a capacidade de indução de resposta imune. / The Human Respiratory Syncytial Vírus was the focus of this work. We found that matrix gene has internal polyadenilation sites, RNA instability motifs, low codon adaptation index (CAI) and GC content, that may impair its expression in vitro. When cloned under control of the ieCMV promoter, the wild-type M gene expression was not detectable, whereas a synthetic optimized matrix gene was highly expressed in transfected cells. This high level of expression made possible to follow M nuclear localization in the beginning of its expression by confocal laser scanning microscopy, and its association with membranes in regions known as lipid rafts. It has also been found that the matrix protein associates with tropomyosin. It was further analyzed the possible functional through expression of deviations of the M protein that lack portions of the protein. Finally it was analyzed its capacity to induce an immune response.

O Vírus Respiratório Sincicial humano (hRSV human Respiratory Syncytial Virus) está entre os principais causadores de doenças do trato respiratório. O hRSV pertence à família Paramyxoviridae. Os sintomas da infecção podem variar de simples estado gripal a doença respiratória grave, e eventualmente levar a óbito. Atualmente não há vacina licenciada ou droga eficaz contra esse vírus. Anteriormente foram obtidos, em nosso laboratório, vetores com genes otimizados. Com essas ferramentas a proteína M foi produzida e purificada tendo sido possível obter anticorpos policlonais específicos e eficientes na sua detecção. Com esses anticorpos confirmamos a interação da proteína M com as proteínas celulares tropomiosina e nucleofosmina. Também foi demonstrado por imunofluorescência e por western blotting que a proteína M quando expressa fora do contexto de infecção apresenta localização nuclear e citoplasmática. Foram feitos testes de imunização com a proteína M purificada ou com um vetor eucariótico que a expressa (DNA). A imunização com proteína M resultou apenas em resposta humoral, enquanto com a vacina de DNA obtivemos apenas resposta celular. Nenhum desses imunógenos, entretanto, foi capaz de conferir proteção contra hRSV. / The human Respiratory Syncytial Virus (hRSV) is among the main causes of respiratory tract diseases, hRSV belongs to the Paramyxoviridae family. The symptoms of the infection can range from simple flulike state to severe respiratory disease eventually leading to death. Currently there is no licensed vaccine or effective drug against this virus. Vectors with genes optimized for of the hRSV Matrix protein (M) expression in bacteria and in eukaryotic cells were previously obtained in our lab. With these tools the M protein was produced and purified. Specific and efficient polyclonal antibodies could then be obtained and used for its detection. Using these antibodies we confirmed M interaction with cellular proteins tropomyosin and nucleophosmin. It was also demonstrated by immunofluorescence and western blotting that protein M when expressed out of viral infection context, presents cytoplasmic and nuclear localization. Immunization tests were made with the purified M protein or with a eukaryotic vector that expresses it (DNA). Immunization with M protein resulted only in humoral response, while with the DNA vaccine only cellular response was obtained. None of these antigens, however, was able to confer protection against hRSV.

O Brasil é o país líder no uso do fungo entomopatogênico Metarhizium anisopliae para o controle pragas agrícolas. Pouco se conhece sobre a diversidade e o impacto dos micovírus em M. anisopliae sensu stricto. Este trabalho mostra a riqueza dos micovírus associados a isolados de M. anisopliae da coleção de entomopatógenos da Universidade de São Paulo, usinas sucroalcooleiras e produtos microbianos à base do entomopatógeno. RNAfd foram encontrados em 55% dos 36 isolados de Metarhizium e apresentaram 16 diferentes padrões eletroforéticos consistindo de 3 a 18 bandas de RNAfd em gel de poliacrilamida. RNAfd não foram detectados em nenhum dos produtos comerciais utilizados no presente estudo. Os diferentes padrões de vírus encontrados nos isolados aqui estudados, aparentemente, não têm relação com os locais onde foram coletados. O inibidor de síntese protéica ciclohexamida não foi eficiente na eliminação dos vírus de RNAfd em nenhum dos isolados de fungos testados. Colônias dos isolados de M. anisopliae ESALQ 866, M. anisopliae ESALQ 1256 e M. anisopliae CTC F8 foram curadas por meio do cultivo monoconidial ou isolamento de ponta de hifas. Alguns segmentos do isolado M. anisopliae PL26 foram perdidos após o subcultivo de ponta das hifas. Colônias de M. anisopliae ESALQ PL26 obtidas por meio do cultivo monoconidial ou subcultivo de ponta de hifas apresentaram grande variabilidade morfológica, no entanto, essa variação não foi correlacionada com a presença de micovírus. Colônias isogênicas de M. anisopliae ESALQ 1256 mostraram diferenças no crescimento, na produção de conídios e na virulência, no entanto, essas diferenças não foram associadas à presença de RNAfd. Não foram observadas diferenças na tolerância aos raios ultravioleta e ao calor entre as colônias de M. anisopliae ESALQ 1256, com e sem vírus de RNAfd. Colônias oriundas de setores formados no isolado M. anisopliae PL26 produziram menor quantidade de conídios e apresentaram menor quantidade de vírus RNAfd em comparação com as colônias oriundas de outras regiões da colônias originais com características normais. A repicagem sucessiva dos isolados de M. anisopliae ESALQ PL26, ESALQ 1256, CTC F8 e CTC F15, infectados por diferentes vírus de RNAfd, nos meios de cultura BDA, SDAY e meio de arroz, bem como a passagem dos fungos em larvas de Tenebrio molitor, em geral, não afetaram a replicação dos micovírus. / Brazil is the leading country in the use of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae against agricultural pests. Little is known about the diversity and the impact of mycovirus in M. anisopliae sensu stricto. This study shows the richness of mycovirus associated with M. anisopliae isolates from the collections of entomopathogens of the University of São Paulo, from sugar-alcohol factories and microbial based products. dsRNA were found in 55% of the 36 Metarhizium isolates and showed 16 different electrophoretic patterns consisting of 3 to 18 dsRNA bands in polyacrylamide gels. dsRNA was not detected in any of the commercial products used in this study. The different viral patterns found in the isolates studied here apparently have no relation to the locations where they were collected. The inhibitor of protein synthesis cycloheximide culture was efficient in eradicating dsRNA virus from fungi. Colonies of isolates of M. anisopliae ESALQ 866, M. anisopliae ESALQ 1256 and M. anisopliae F8 were cured by monoconidial or by hyphal tip isolation of. Some segments of the M. anisopliae PL26 isolate were lost following hyphal tip subculture. Colonies both from monoconidial culture and hyphal tip subculture of M. anisopliae ESALQ PL26 showed great morphological variability; however, this variation was not correlated with the presence of mycoviruses. Isogenic colonies of M. anisopliae ESALQ 1256 showed differences in growth, conidia production and virulence; however, these differences were not associated to the presence of the dsRNA. No difference was observed regarding tolerance to ultraviolet rays and heat among the colonies of M. anisopliae ESALQ 1256, with and without the dsRNA virus. Sectors formed in the isolate M. anisopliae PL26 produced a smaller number of conidia and fewer dsRNA virus in comparison to the original colonies with normal characteristics. The repeated subculture of isolates of M. anisopliae ESALQ PL26, ESALQ 1256, CTC F8 and CTC F15, infected by different virus of dsRNA, in the PDA, SDAY culture media and in rice, as well as the fungi passage in larvae of Tenebrio molitor, in general, did not affect the replication of the mycovirus.

Les virus à ARN sont à l’origine de nombreuses épidémies depuis ces dernières décennies. Malgré des avancées thérapeutiques majeures, une majorité d’infection est orpheline de traitement. Le développement d’antiviraux à spectre large est une alternative thérapeutique pour maximiser le nombre de virus ciblés, minimiser les coûts de production et améliorer la prise pour les patients. Afin de trouver de nouvelles cibles cellulaires, la compréhension des mécanismes moléculaires utilisés par les virus pour infecter l’hôte est essentielle.Les virus utilisent des facteurs cellulaires pour survivre et se propager. Parmi ceux-ci, on trouve les microARNs (miARNs) et les longs ARNs non-codants (lncARNs) qui peuvent participer à la réponse antivirale mais peuvent également être détournés par les virus pour favoriser l’infection. Ces d’ARN non-codants peuvent interagir avec des protéines cellulaires (« RNA-binding protein » (RBP)) telles que la protéine KSRP. Cette RBP est impliquée dans le contrôle de l’expression des ARNs en participant à l’épissage de certains pré-ARNm, à la dégradation des ARNs contenant des séquences riches en AU et à la maturation de certains miARNs. Ses fonctions et sa localisation sont dépendantes de la phosphorylation de certains résidus par les kinases cellulaires Akt, ATM et p38/MAPK.Le but de ma thèse a été d’étudier la modulation de l’expression de ces deux classes d’ARN non-codants au cours de l’infection par des virus à ARN tels que le virus de l’Hépatite C (VHC) et la souche HCoV-229E des Coronavirus. Plus particulièrement nous avons cherché à étudier l’implication de KSRP dans la régulation d’ARN non-codants essentiels pour ces infections.Mes recherches ont commencé par l’étude de la maturation du microARN-122 (miR-122), un facteur proviral de l’infection par le VHC. Nous avons montré que KSRP phosphorylée sur le résidu S193 par Akt interagissait avec le complexe nucléaire DROSHA/DGCR8 et ainsi était essentielle à la maturation du pri-miR-122 en miR-122 favorisant la réplication virale. Notre avons ensuite étudié le rôle des phosphorylations de KSRP par ATM et p38/MAPK sur la réplication et sur la maturation du miR-122. La phosphorylation par ATM ne semble pas jouer un rôle majeur sur ces deux paramètres. En revanche, la phosphorylation de KSRP sur le résidu T692 par la kinase p38/MAPK semble jouer un rôle positif sur la réplication VHC.Dans un second temps, par homologie avec les résultats obtenus dans le cas du VHC, nous avons étudié le rôle de KSRP lors de l’infection par la souche HCoV-229E des Coronavirus. En transfectant un siKSRP ou un plasmide exprimant la protéine KSRP, nous avons pu démontrer que KSRP était un facteur proviral pour la réplication virale.Afin d’identifier les ARN non-codants modulés au cours de l’infection HcoV-229E et dont l’expression pouvait être régulée par KSRP, nous avons effectué deux analyses de séquençage à haut débit (« NGS »). L’analyse réalisée sur des cellules infectées vs non-infectées nous a permis d’identifier l’ensemble des miARNs et lncARNs dérégulés par le virus. Nous avons croisé ces résultats avec un second « NGS » fait sur des cellules infectées, inhibées pour KSRP et nous avons trouvé que l’expression du LinC00473 était modulée dans les deux conditions expérimentales. En étudiant ce facteur cellulaire au cours de l’infection nous avons observé une forte induction KSRP-dépendante du LinC00473 à 24 h post-infection, puis une diminution à 48 h post-infection. L’inhibition de ce facteur entraîne une diminution de la réplication virale suggérant que le LinC00473 est un facteur proviral au début de l’infection.Nos résultats ont permis de montrer le rôle proviral de la protéine KSRP lors de deux infections virales (VHC et HCoV-229E des Coronavirus). Son implication dans la régulation de l’expression des ARNs fait de cette protéine un outil efficace pour découvrir de nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques ARN non-codants au cours d’autres infections virales. / Résumé en anglaisRNA viruses have been the cause of many epidemics in recent decades. Despite major therapeutic advances, a majority of infection is currently orphan for treatment. The development of new broad spectrum antivirals is a therapeutic alternative to maximize the number of targeted viruses, minimize production costs and improve access to population. In order to find new cellular targets for this type of therapeutic approach, understanding the molecular mechanisms used by RNA viruses to infect the host is essential.Viruses exploit cellular factors to survive and to disseminate. Among those factors, microRNA (miRNA) and long non-coding RNA (lnCRNA) can participate to cellular antiviral response but can also be hijacked by the virus to improve the infection. These two families of non-coding RNA could interact with cellular RNA-binding protein (RBP) such as KSRP. This ubiquitous protein is involved in RNA expression control via its participation to pre-mRNA splicing, decay of AU-rich element mRNA and maturation of microRNAs. The functions and localization of KSRP are dependent of post- modification by the cellular kinases Akt, ATM and p38/MAPK.The aim of my thesis was to study the modulation of the expression of these two classes of non-coding RNA during infection by RNA viruses such as the hepatitis C virus (HCV) and the HCoV-229E strain of the Coronaviruses. More specifically, we evaluated the involvement of KSRP in the regulation of non-coding RNAs essential for these infections.My research project began with the study of microRNA-122 (miR-122) the maturation. This miRNA is a proviral factor for HCV infection. We have shown that the Akt-dependent phosphorylation of S193-KSRP promoted the interaction of pri-miR-122 with the DROSHA / DGCR8 nuclear complex and thus was essential for the maturation of miR-122, finally promoting viral replication. We then investigated the role of KSRP phosphorylation by ATM and p38 / MAPK on viral replication and on miR-122 maturation. ATM phosphorylation does not seem to play a major role in these two parameters. In contrast, phosphorylation of KSRP on the T692 residue by p38 / MAPK kinase appears to play a positive role on viral replication.In a second step, by homology with the results obtained in the case of the HCV infection, we studied the role of KSRP during the infection with the HCoV-229E strain of Coronaviruses. After siKSRP transfection or exogenous expression of the KSRP protein, we were able to demonstrate that KSRP was a proviral cellular factor for HCoV-229E replication.In order to characterize the modulation of non-coding RNAs expression during HcoV-229E infection and to identify the non-coding RNAs whose expression could be regulated by KSRP, we performed two high-throughput sequencing ("NGS") assays. The analysis performed on infected and non-infected cells allowed us to identify all the miRNAs and lncRNAs whose expression was altered by the virus. We cross-examined these results with a second "NGS" performed on HCoV-229E infected cells inhibited for KSRP. We found that the expression of an InCARN (LinC00473) was modulated under both experimental conditions. We demonstrated a strong KSRP-dependent induction of LinC00473 expression at 24 h post-infection, then a decrease at 48 h post-infection. Inhibition of this factor results in decreased viral replication suggesting that LinC00473 is a proviral cell factor at the onset of infection.Our results have shown the proviral role of the KSRP protein during two viral infections (HCV and HCoV-229E of the coronaviruses). Its involvement in the regulation of RNA expression makes of KSRP an effective tool for discovering new non-coding RNA therapeutic targets for other viral infections

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