A perda e fragmentação dos habitats naturais é uma das maiores ameaças à biodiversidade. Uma estratégia muito popular para reduzir os efeitos negativos da perda e fragmentação é a manutenção ou implantação de corredores de habitat ligando remanescentes. Entretanto, a avaliação da eficácia e custo benefício de corredores como estratégia de conservação é limitada pela escassez de dados empíricos, principalmente na região neotropical. Neste estudo avaliamos, a partir de uma abordagem empírica, a importância de corredores florestais como habitat e como promotores de movimento para aves florestais em paisagens fragmentadas na Mata Atlântica. Com um estudo observacional no nível da comunidade avaliamos o papel da largura e do tipo (ripário ou não-ripário) de corredor sobre a riqueza e composição de espécies florestais. Com um estudo observacional no nível do indivíduo avaliamos como a presença de corredores e o sexo dos indivíduos influíram nos movimentos de uma ave de sub-bosque endêmica da Mata Atlântica (Pyriglena leucoptera, Passeriformes, Thamnophilidae) por paisagens fragmentadas. Encontramos que a riqueza e composição de espécies de aves florestais foram fortemente relacionadas à largura (mas não ao tipo) de corredor. Corredores largos (> 100 m) foram capazes de abrigar diversas espécies de aves florestais, enquanto que corredores mais estreitos abrigaram um grupo restrito e não-aleatório de espécies comuns. Corredores estreitos teriam, então, pouca utilidade como habitat para aves florestais. Encontramos também que corredores facilitam os movimentos de P. leucoptera por paisagens fragmentadas e que áreas abertas os dificultam, especialmente para os indivíduos machos. Há evidências de que corredores poderiam aumentar a persistência da espécies em áreas fragmentadas. Os resultados destes estudos fornecem evidências de que corredores são elementos úteis para a manutenção da biodiversidade de aves florestais em paisagens fragmentadas. / Habitat loss and fragmentation are major threats to biodiversity. Habitat corridors linking remnants are a popular strategy to reduce the negative effects of habitat loss and fragmentation. However, the evaluation of the effectiveness of corridors in conservation is limited by lack of empirical evidence, especially in the neotropics. In this thesis we empirically evaluated the importance of forest corridors as habitats and movement conduits for forest birds in fragmented Atlantic Forest landscapes. With an observational study at the community level we evaluated the effects of corridor width and type (riparian or non-riparian) on forest bird richness and composition. Under an experimental approach at the individual level we evaluated how the presence or absence of corridors and gender affected the movements of an understory bird endemic to the Atlantic Forest (Pyriglena leucoptera, Passeriformes, Thamnophilidae). We found that forest bird richness and composition were strongly affected by corridor width (but not by type). Wide corridors (> 100 m) were able to harbor many forest species, whereas narrower corridors harbored and non-random and restrict group of common species. Therefore narrow corridor would have a limited value as habitats for forest species. We also found that corridors increased P. leucoptera movements and that open areas decreased them, especially for male individuals. There are evidence that corridors could increase the persistence probability of P. leucoptera in fragmented landscapes. The results of both studioes provide evidence that forest corridors are useful tools for maintain forest bird diversity in Atlantic forest fragmented landscapes.

A perda e fragmentação dos habitats naturais é uma das maiores ameaças à biodiversidade. Uma estratégia muito popular para reduzir os efeitos negativos da perda e fragmentação é a manutenção ou implantação de corredores de habitat ligando remanescentes. Entretanto, a avaliação da eficácia e custo benefício de corredores como estratégia de conservação é limitada pela escassez de dados empíricos, principalmente na região neotropical. Neste estudo avaliamos, a partir de uma abordagem empírica, a importância de corredores florestais como habitat e como promotores de movimento para aves florestais em paisagens fragmentadas na Mata Atlântica. Com um estudo observacional no nível da comunidade avaliamos o papel da largura e do tipo (ripário ou não-ripário) de corredor sobre a riqueza e composição de espécies florestais. Com um estudo observacional no nível do indivíduo avaliamos como a presença de corredores e o sexo dos indivíduos influíram nos movimentos de uma ave de sub-bosque endêmica da Mata Atlântica (Pyriglena leucoptera, Passeriformes, Thamnophilidae) por paisagens fragmentadas. Encontramos que a riqueza e composição de espécies de aves florestais foram fortemente relacionadas à largura (mas não ao tipo) de corredor. Corredores largos (> 100 m) foram capazes de abrigar diversas espécies de aves florestais, enquanto que corredores mais estreitos abrigaram um grupo restrito e não-aleatório de espécies comuns. Corredores estreitos teriam, então, pouca utilidade como habitat para aves florestais. Encontramos também que corredores facilitam os movimentos de P. leucoptera por paisagens fragmentadas e que áreas abertas os dificultam, especialmente para os indivíduos machos. Há evidências de que corredores poderiam aumentar a persistência da espécies em áreas fragmentadas. Os resultados destes estudos fornecem evidências de que corredores são elementos úteis para a manutenção da biodiversidade de aves florestais em paisagens fragmentadas. / Habitat loss and fragmentation are major threats to biodiversity. Habitat corridors linking remnants are a popular strategy to reduce the negative effects of habitat loss and fragmentation. However, the evaluation of the effectiveness of corridors in conservation is limited by lack of empirical evidence, especially in the neotropics. In this thesis we empirically evaluated the importance of forest corridors as habitats and movement conduits for forest birds in fragmented Atlantic Forest landscapes. With an observational study at the community level we evaluated the effects of corridor width and type (riparian or non-riparian) on forest bird richness and composition. Under an experimental approach at the individual level we evaluated how the presence or absence of corridors and gender affected the movements of an understory bird endemic to the Atlantic Forest (Pyriglena leucoptera, Passeriformes, Thamnophilidae). We found that forest bird richness and composition were strongly affected by corridor width (but not by type). Wide corridors (> 100 m) were able to harbor many forest species, whereas narrower corridors harbored and non-random and restrict group of common species. Therefore narrow corridor would have a limited value as habitats for forest species. We also found that corridors increased P. leucoptera movements and that open areas decreased them, especially for male individuals. There are evidence that corridors could increase the persistence probability of P. leucoptera in fragmented landscapes. The results of both studioes provide evidence that forest corridors are useful tools for maintain forest bird diversity in Atlantic forest fragmented landscapes.

Aquesta tesi es basa en el programa de reintroducció de la llúdriga eurasiàtica (Lutra lutra) a les conques dels rius Muga i Fluvià (Catalunya) durant la segona meitat dels 1990s. Els objectius de la tesi foren demostrar la viabilitat de la reintroducció, demostrar l'èxit de la mateixa, estudiar aspectes ecològics i etològics de l'espècie, aprofitant l'oportunitat única de gaudir d'una població "de disseny" i determinar les probabilitats de supervivència de la població a llarg termini.La reintroducció de la llúdriga a les conques dels rius Muga i Fluvià va reeixir, doncs l'àrea geogràfica ocupada efectivament es va incrementar fins a un 64% d'estacions positives a l'hivern 2001-02. La troballa de tres exemplars adults nascuts a l'àrea de reintroducció és una altra prova que valida l'èxit del programa.La densitat d'exemplars calculada a través dels censos visuals ha resultat baixa (0.04-0.11 llúdrigues/km), però s'aproxima al que hom pot esperar en els primers estadis d'una població reintroduïda, encara poc nombrosa però distribuïda en una gran àrea.La mortalitat post-alliberament va ser del 22% un any després de l'alliberament, similar o inferior a la d'altres programes de reintroducció de llúdrigues reeixits. La mortalitat va ser deguda principalment a atropellaments (56%).El patró d'activitat de les llúdrigues reintroduïdes va esdevenir principalment nocturn i crepuscular, amb una escassa activitat diürna. Les seves àrees vitals van ser del mateix ordre (34,2 km) que les calculades en d'altres estudis realitzats a Europa. La longitud mitjana de riu recorreguda per una llúdriga durant 24 hores va ser de 4,2 km per les femelles i 7,6 km pels mascles. Durant el període de radioseguiment dues femelles van criar i els seus moviments van poder ser estudiats amb deteniment. La resposta de la nova població de llúdrigues a les fluctuacions estacionals en la disponibilitat d'aigua, habitual a les regions mediterrànies, va consistir en la concentració en una àrea menor durant el període de sequera estival, a causa de l'increment de trams secs, inhabitables per la llúdriga per la manca d'aliment, fet que va provocar expansions i contraccions periòdiques en l'àrea de distribució.La persistència a llarg termini de la població reintroduïda va ser estudiada mitjançant una Anàlisi de Viabilitat Poblacional (PVA). El resultat va ser un baix risc d'extinció de la població en els propers 100 anys i la majoria dels escenaris simulats (65%) van assolir el criteri d'un mínim de 90% de probabilitat de supervivència. Del model poblacional construït es dedueix que un punt clau per assegurar la viabilitat de la població reintroduïda és la reducció de la mortalitataccidental. A l'àrea d'estudi, els atropellaments causen més del 50% de la mortalitat i aquesta pot ser reduïda mitjançant la construcció de passos de fauna, el tancament lateral d'alguns trams de carretera perillosos i el control de la velocitat en algunes vies.El projecte de reintroducció ha posat a punt un protocol per a la captura, maneig i alliberament de llúdrigues salvatges, que pot contenir informació útil per a programes similars. També ha suposat una oportunitat única d'estudiar una població dissenyada artificialment i poder comparar diversos mètodes per estimar la distribució i la densitat de poblacions de llúdrigues.Per últim, la reintroducció portada a terme a les conques dels rius Muga i Fluvià ha aconseguit crear una nova població de llúdrigues, que persisteix en el temps, que es reprodueix regularment i que es dispersa progressivament, fins i tot a noves conques fluvials. / This thesis deals with an otter reintroduction program carried out in the Muga and Fluvià basins in North-eastern Spain during the second half of the 1990s. The objectives of the thesis were to demonstrate the viability of the reintroduction, to demonstrate the success, to study ecological and behavioural aspects of the species, that have in the reintroduction an unique opportunity to dispose of a "designed" population and to determine long-term survival rates of the reintroduced population.Reintroduction of the otter in the Muga and Fluvià basins succeeded, because the geographical area occupied by the otter increased to 64% of positive otter stations in winter 2001-02. The finding of three adult otters born in the reintroduction area is further proof to support the success of the reintroduction program.Density values found through visual censuses were low (0.04-0.11 otters/km), but they approached what could be expected in the first stages of a reintroduced population, still small but extended over a wide area.Post-release mortality was 22% one year after release, similar to or lower than successful otter reintroduction programs. Mortality was due mainly to traffic (56%).The activity pattern of the reintroduced otters proved mainly nocturnal and crepuscular, with scarce diurnal activity. The ranges of the reintroduced otters were of the same order (34.2 km) as those found in other studies in Europe. Mean length of waterway used by an otter during 24 hours was 4.2 km for females and 7.6 km for males. During radiotracking two females bred and their movements could be followed intensively. The response of the reintroduced otter population to high seasonal fluctuations in water availability, typical in Mediterranean regions, consisted of concentration in a smaller area during summer droughts, due to the increase of dry stretches which were uninhabitable for the otter because of lack of food, and so caused periodical expansions and contractions in the otter population's range.Long-term persistence of the reintroduced population was studied through a Population Viability Analysis (PVA). The result was low risk of extinction in the next 100 years, with most scenarios (65%) meeting the criterion of a minimum of 90% probability of survival. Population modeling highlighted the importance of preventing road kills, which cause more than 50% of otter mortality, through the construction of fauna passages, the fencing of some dangerous road stretches and the use of speed restrictions.The Girona Reintroduction Otter Project tuned a protocol for trapping, handling and releasing wild otters that can provide useful information for similar programs. It also represented a unique opportunity to study an artificially designed population and to compare several methods of estimating otter distribution and density.Finally, the reintroduction carried out in the Muga and Fluvià basins has achieved the creation of a new otter population, that persists over time, reproduces regularly and is gradually dispersing, even to new river basins.

Plantations are widespread throughout temperate regions, and the area of plantation land cover is predicted to get larger in the future. Interest in ensuring sustainable plantation management is also growing, as it is increasingly recognised that productive areas should play a role in biodiversity conservation. Plantation landscapes can comprise the majority of forested cover in some countries, but taxon-specific guidance can be lacking, due to plantations often being under surveyed. Therefore, despite substantial incentives existing to ensure that plantations meet various ecological criteria, plantation managers lack the information necessary to implement effective management plans. Many bat species have undergone widespread declines in recent decades, attributed to habitat loss and fragmentation, particularly of forested habitat. In many temperate countries, historical deforestation has resulted in very low native tree cover, and subsequently, considerable replanting with non-native commercial coniferous plantations has taken place. Species specific habitat surveys have often demonstrated avoidance of conifer plantations by bats, which has been attributed to a lack of roosts and low invertebrate prey abundance. Furthermore, widespread lepidopteran declines have been partly attributed to afforestation with non-native conifer, but moth associations with commercial coniferous plantations are usually only studied for pest species. Bats present a particular challenge in plantation landscapes; tree cover is important to many species to a greater or lesser extent, and in the United Kingdom, destruction of a roost site is illegal, regardless of whether it was deliberate or accidental. However, the extent to which bats associate with non-native commercial plantations is relatively unexplored. This is the first study to explicitly test bat associations with Picea sitchensis plantations (using acoustic detectors, trapping and radio tracking), and shows that, contrary to expectations, they may be an important habitat for breeding populations of Pipistrellus spp., particularly P. pygmaeus. High levels of activity were recorded for both P. pygmaeus and P. pipistrellus, despite little difference in dipteran abundance between different stand types, both species preferentially foraged in felled or less dense stands. This suggests that bats preferentially forage in areas with less acoustic and physical clutter, which will increase foraging efficiency. The impacts of felling in non-native commercial coniferous plantations on foraging activity was tested, for the first time, using a Before – After – Control – Impact experimental design. Bat activity (specifically P. pipistrellus and Nyctalus) increased after felling, particularly in smaller stands. In contrast felling had significant, negative impacts on moth abundance, species richness and diversity, and these effects remain after constraining for functional trait similarity. Reductions in richness and diversity in response to felling were similarly large for both rare and abundant species. Therefore, while bats may benefit from clear fell practices, albeit as long as the size of patches is small, moth populations could benefit from a shift towards other forestry methods, iv such as continuous cover forestry. These results also have implications for the recent, but increasing practice of siting wind turbines in commercial coniferous plantations, as pre-installation preparation involves clearing small patches of forest which may attract foraging bats; post felling monitoring should be carried out to examine potential impacts on bat populations. The presence of broadleaf trees in and around plantations significantly increased moth richness, mostly through increased occurrence of rare species. Broadleaf woodlands (defined as land spanning more than 0.5 ha, with trees higher than 5m and a combined cover of shrubs, bushes and trees above 10%), also had higher functional redundancy than plantation sites. For a diverse moth population to persist in plantation landscapes, preserving remnant patches of broadleaf trees is essential. There was little difference in bat activity between broadleaf woodlands and plantation sites. However, bat abundance, particularly that of reproductively active females, was greater in broadleaf sites compared to plantations. This was particularly true for Myotis and Nyctalus spp., very few of which were trapped in commercial plantations. Therefore, although reproductively active female Myotis bats are present in the surrounding landscape, they do not appear to associate with plantations themselves. This may reflect a lack of roost availability; both P. pygmaeus and P. pipistrellus preferentially form large maternity colonies in buildings, but for Myotis and Nyctalus spp. which roost switch regularly and often use trees, it is unlikely many suitable roosts exist within the plantations themselves. Many substantial P. pygmaeus maternity colonies were identified in and around Galloway forest, with some holding more than 500 individuals. All maternity colonies were in buildings, and most inhabited (and one uninhabited) buildings within the plantation contained a roost. Although females occasionally used old or dead deciduous trees as temporary roosts, there was no evidence of roosting in crop trees such as P. sitchensis. During this study, the Forestry Commission installed 36 bat boxes; within 6 months over 90% had been used, with a number of harems found inside. This fast uptake compared with bat use of boxes in other locations reflects the paucity of appropriate structures for either roost or harem use in commercial plantations. Twelve bats were captured while foraging, tagged with small radio transmitters, and followed for between 2 and 6 nights during 2014 and 2015. All but one tagged female preferentially foraged within the plantation, with individuals selecting equally riparian habitats and felled stands. Tagged females which roosted furthest from the plantation had the largest home ranges; one individual flew nearly 40km each night to reach foraging areas distant from her roost, suggesting that the food availability within the plantation was sufficient to render such a long journey energetically viable. v These results have important implications for bat populations in and around commercial coniferous plantations. Far from being avoided by bats, plantation landscapes may constitute an important habitat type for both P. pygmaeus and P. pipistrellus, likely due to the high abundance of nematoceran diptera in plantation woodlands. Furthermore, plantation forests support a similar richness of moth species to urban and agricultural woodlands, including a number of declining species of special conservation concern. A list of management recommendations to benefit both bat and moth populations in commercial plantations is presented at the end of this thesis.

Increased afforestation and protective legislation in the latter half of the 20th Century allowed the British pine marten Martes martes population to recover from near extinction. Although still largely confined to northern Scotland, the marten population is expanding its size and range by utlising coniferous plantation forests which have become increasingly available. However, little is known about the marten’s ecology in plantation forestry, and less about how they may adapt to changing silvicultural trends. This study investigated aspects of pine marten ecology within Morangie forest, a managed plantation in NE Scotland, with the ultimate aim of formulating management guidelines for modern plantation forests. During the course of the study 11 pine marten were radiotracked and their home ranges mapped to examine marten-habitat associations at several spatial scales. Compositional analysis of habitat based on dominant vegetation type showed that martens established their home ranges in areas dominated by mature forest, whilst showing relative avoidance for open heath moor and grazed pasture. Within home ranges, foraging martens utilised patches of graminoid vegetation, such as those typically associated with Microtus voles, in areas with little or no tree canopy cover. These findings provide unequivocal evidence that fine-scale patches of non-forested habitat provide crucial foraging resources for marten, and therefore ought to be provisioned for in forest management plans. To assist the implementation of these requirements in forest planning, a model was developed to predict the fine scale distribution of Microtus-rich foraging habitat for marten using GIS-based habitat variables that are routinely available to forest managers: topographic wetness index, stand tree height and stand basal area. Management recommendations of ways to improve wind-firm plantation forests as habitats for pine marten are provided. To augment the investigation of marten spatial ecology, the diet of martens was examined seasonally through the analysis of contents from c. 2450 scats, 86 % of which were genetically identified as being pine marten in origin. Marten diets displayed marked seasonality, but small mammals, berries and small birds were the principal foods consumed based on both frequency of occurrence and estimated weight of biomass ingested. Comparison of the relative composition of small mammal species in the diet with those available in the environment revealed that marten displayed an indisputable preference for Microtus voles. Such habits demonstrate that the niche of Scottish martens has diverged from those in mainland populations which predominantly prey upon Clethrionomys voles. A comparison of the marten’s winter diet with those found in studies at similar latitudes (58°N) demonstrated that the Scottish diet was more similar to diets at more southerly latitudes as they contained more fruit and fewer large mammals than typically boreal diets. Investigation of inter-annual variation of the marten’s spring diet from five successive years revealed that Microtus were consistently the most important prey species in the diet each year. Indirect evidence of the relative abundance of Microtus suggested that Microtus populations were non-cyclic. Findings are discussed with reference to the unique ecological circumstances confronting marten in the Scotland; typical of insular populations the UK has a depauperate native fauna in comparison with mainland Europe, in addition to this, mild climatic conditions, particularly over winter, and a historically fragmented landscape appear to have allowed the niche of the Scottish marten to diverge from that considered typical elsewhere in its range. The Scottish marten is dependent on both forested and open habitats, and is both a Microtus specialist and trophic generalist.