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The dissociative electron transfer reactions of a series of α-epoxyketones and tetra-n-butylammonium acetate have been examined by electrochemical and computational techniques. Results for both the direct electrochemical (linear sweep voltammetry and convolution voltammetry) and indirect electrochemical (homogeneous redox catalysis) reductions of the epoxyketones are presented. In cases where the ring-closed radical anion generated by reduction of the epoxyketones is resonance stabilized (aromatic epoxyketones) the mechanism proceeds in a stepwise fashion, where the electron transfer and bond breaking reactions occur in sequential, discrete steps. On the other hand, where there is no additional resonance stabilization afforded to the ring-closed epoxide radical anion (aliphatic epoxyketones) the reaction proceeds in a concerted fashion, where electron transfer and ring cleavage occur simultaneously. The presence (or absence) of resonance stabilization in the ring-opened distonic radical anion plays little role in the kinetics of these dissociative electron transfers. Computations with the Density Functional Theory (B3-LYP and BHandH-LYP) on α-epoxyketones are also presented, and are in good agreement with the electrochemical results. The oxidative dissociative electron transfers of the acetate anion in "dry" and "wet" (0.5 M H2O) acetonitrile were also characterized with direct and indirect electrochemical experiments, again utilizing linear sweep voltammetry, convolution voltammetry, and homogeneous redox catalysis. There is a significant change in the observed oxidation potential of the anion upon addition of water, as well as an apparent decrease in the intrinsic barrier to the electron transfer. The possible transition from a concerted to stepwise mechanism for the dissociative electron transfer of acetate upon addition of water is examined - the electrochemical data is compared to theoretical models for both the concerted and stepwise processes. It is determined that the indirect electrochemical experiments do not proceed through an outer sphere electron transfer. Additionally, it is shown that the difference between the direct oxidation of acetate in anhydrous and wet acetonitrile is unlikely to be the result of transition from a purely concerted mechanism to a purely stepwise mechanism based on thermodynamic considerations. / Ph. D.

Accurate localization of breakpoints and deleted regions on chromosome 7 in bone marrow cells of patients is an essential step in identifying genes involved in tumor transformation of a cell. In case of hematological malignancies usually oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes are activated or deleted by a change in the arrangement of genetic material. Aberration of chromosome 7, total or partial loss of chromosome, especially long arms 7q, are among the recurrent cytogenetic abnormalities in patients with myeloid diseases such as myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Aberrations of chromosome 7 are an important prognostic marker occurring in 8-10% de novo MDS and AML and in 40-50% treated MDS / AML. For a detailed analysis of chromosome 7 breakpoints and aberrations, samples of 51 adult patients diagnosed with AML / MDS were examined using conventional and molecular cytogenomic methods. In our testing group we demonstrated a separate 7q deletion in one patient (2%) and an isolated monosomy of chromosome 7 in six patients (12%). Aberration of chromosome 7 detected in combination with another change was found in 17 cases (33%) and 27 patients (53%) had complex karyotype changes including chromosome 7. The most frequent breakpoint was 7q22. In 26 patients we proved a deletion...

Large-scale changes are common in genomes, and are often associated with pathological disorders. In the work presented in this dissertation, I provide insights into how inverted repeat sequences in budding yeast fuse during replication. Fusion leads to the formation of dicentric chromosomes, a translocation, and other chromosomal rearrangements.Using extensive genetics and some molecular analyses, I demonstrate that dicentric chromosomes are key intermediates in genome instability of a specific chromosome in budding yeast. I provide three pieces of evidence that is consistent with this conclusion. First, I detect a recombination fusion junction that is diagnostic of a dicentric chromosome (using a PCR technique). Second, I show a strong correlation between the amount of the dicentric fragment and the frequency of instability of the entire chromosome. Third, I demonstrate that a mutant known to stabilize dicentric chromosomes suppress instability. Based on these observations, I conclude that dicentric chromosomes are intermediates in causing genome instability in this system.Next, we demonstrate that fusion of inverted repeats is general. Both endogenous and synthetic nearby inverted repeats can fuse. Using genetics, I also show that many DNA repair and checkpoint pathways suppress fusion of nearby inverted repeats and genome instability. Based on our analysis, we propose a novel mechanism for fusion of inverted repeats that we term `faulty template switching.'Lastly, I discuss two genes that are necessary for fusion of nearby inverted repeats. I identified a mutant of the Exonuclease 1 (Exo1) and a mutant of anaphase inhibitor securin (Pds1) that suppress nearby inverted repeat fusion and genome instability. Studies of Exo1 and Pds1 provide us with insights into the molecular mechanisms of fusion.Our finding that nearby inverted repeats can fuse to form dicentric chromosomes that lead to genome instability may have great implications. The generality of this fusion reaction raises the possibility that dicentric chromosomes formed by inverted repeats can lead to genome instability in mammalian cells, and thereby contribute to a cancer phenotype.

L'augmentation du nombre de génomes totalement séquencés rend de plus en plus efficace l'étude des mécanismes évolutifs à partir de la comparaison de génomes contemporains. L'un des principaux problèmes réside dans la reconstruction d'architectures de génomes ancestraux plausibles afin d'apporter des hypothèses à la fois sur l'histoire des génomes existants et sur les mécanismes de leur formation. Toutes les méthodes de reconstruction ancestrale ne convergent pas nécessairement vers les mêmes résultats mais sont toutes basées sur les trois mêmes étapes : l'identification des marqueurs communs dans les génomes contemporains, la construction de cartes comparatives des génomes, et la réconciliation de ces cartes en utilisant le critère de parcimonie maximum. La qualité importante des données à analyser nécessite l'automatisation des traitements et résoudre ces problèmes représente de formidables challenges computationnels. Affiner le modèles et outils mathématiques existants par l'ajout de contraintes biologiques fortes rend les hypothèses établies biologiquement plus réalistes. Dans cette thèse, nous proposons une nouvelle méthode permettant d'identifier des marqueurs communs pour des espèces évolutivement distantes. Ensuite, nous appliquons sur les cartes comparatives reconstituées une nouvelle méthode pour la reconstruction d'architectures ancestrales basée sur les adjacences entre les marqueurs calculés et les distances génomiques entre les génomes contemporains. Enfin, après avoir corrigé l'algorithme existant permettant de déterminer une séquence optimale de réarrangements qui se sont produits durant l'évolution des génomes existants depuis leur ancêtre commun, nous proposons un nouvel outil appelé VIRAGE qui permet la visualisation animée des scénarios de réarrangements entre les espèces / Abstract

Metodologias de sequenciamento do genoma total para investigação de diferentes tipos de câncer detectaram recentemente uma nova classe de alterações caóticas de DNA, denominada Chromothripsis. Este fenômeno de instabilidade genômica é relativamente comum em tumores de Osteossarcoma (OS), mas existem poucos estudos que expliquem esta conexão ou abordem suas causas e consequências. A presente tese iniciou-se com a re-análise de microarrays de dez amostras de OS pediátrico, previamente processadas pelo nosso laboratório, para avaliar a variação de número de cópias de DNA (CNVs). Usando ferramentas de detecção de padrões característicos de Chromothripsis (CTLPs), encontramos 3 amostras de OS com Chromothripsis , que afetaram quatro cromossomos (2, 10, 14 e 20). As amostras com presença de Chromothripsis tiveram uma media de 468 CNVs/amostra, enquanto o grupo sem o fenômeno teve uma média de 255 CNVs/amostra. Após essa avaliação de CNVs, comparamos os níveis de expressão de RNA entre duas amostras com a presença e quatro tumores com ausência de Chromothripsis. Cerca de 171 genes estão presentes em regiões de CNVs diferentes entre os grupos avaliados. Destes, a maioria (77 genes) são relacionados com funções de comunicação celular e ao ciclo celular. Um grupo de 43 genes foi relacionado às vias de processo metabólico (principalmente associado ao metabolismo do RNA) e 27 genes associados à organização do componente celular ou biogênese. Tumores com Chromothripsis possuiam 4 genes do sistema imune menos expressos (CADM1; CLEC4A; CCR1; CD164) e 12 estavam superexpressos (IL32, LAT, BCL3, FCAR, RFX1, ILIB, CXCL1, SPON2, CCR6, IL6, SEMA3C, GEM). Os genes pouco expressos também têm um papel na via de adesão celular. A adesão celular está associada à progressão do câncer e metástase. Em seguida, re-analisamos as CNVs de 82 amostras de OS e 35 linhagens celulares de OS, usando microarrays disponíveis em bancos de dados públicos (GEO e arrayexpress), para identificar potenciais regiões cromossômicas comumente envolvidas em alterações caóticas no número de cópias de DNA, especialmente CTLPs. Identificamos Chromothripsis em 27 amostras (11 tumores e 16 linhagens), afetando 17 cromossomos diferentes. Os cromossomos 2, 8 e 12 foram alvos frequentes de Chromothripsis em OS. Em seguida, foram analisados dados de sequenciamento WGS de 12 tumores de OS disponíveis no banco de dados online dbGaP. Fizemos a avaliação da variação de número de cópias para caracterizar detalhadamente as alterações caóticas e identificar asregiões cromossômicas alvo envolvidas nas regiões de alterações caóticas no número de cópias do DNA. Encontramos CTPLs em 7 (58%) das 12 amostras de OS analisadas, usando dados de sequenciamento total. Foram encontrados 12 cromossomos diferentes afetados pelo fenômeno de alteração caótica. CTPLs foram detectadas em 62,5% das amostras de pacientes que faleceram em decorrência deste tumor. Os cromossomos 1, 3 e 7 foram um pouco mais afetados por Chromothripsis nas amostras disponibilizadas pelo dbGaP. Além disso, os cromossomos 2 e 12 também foram afetados por Chromothripsis nessas amostras. Cerca de 700 genes/tumor foram encontrados nas regiões de CTLPs. Um total de 101 genes foram localizados em regiões de alteração de número de cópias que distinguem os grupos com e sem Chromothripsis. Estes genes estão relacionados com vias de processo celular (45 genes - os quais 17 estão associados à comunicação celular) e processo metabólico (22 genes - os quais 19 estão associados ao processo metabólico primário). Nós também comparamos os níveis de expressão gênica das amostras disponíbilizadas pelo dbGap, em que foram avaliados dados de expressão de 6 amostras de RNA de OS com Chromothripsis e de 3 amostras de RNA de OS sem Chromothripsis . Diferentes algoritmos e ferramentas foram utilizadas para avaliação de RNA. Nós analisamos os dados de expressão por dois diferentes mecanismos: EdgeR e Nexus Expression. Ambos mostraram menor expressão de RNA nas vias de comunicação celular e processo metabólico primário em amostras com Chromothripsis. Os genes com regulação negativa da resposta do sistema imunológico foram encontrados em ambas ferramentas (COL8A1, CCL25). Para estudar os cromossomos envolvidos na formação de micronúcleos na linhagem celular U2OS, foram investigados erros na divisão celular induzidos por drogas (durante a anáfase). Esta etapa foi realizada durante o período de doutorado sanduíche, no Barts Cancer Institute, em Londres-UK. Os cromossomos com erros durante a anáfase foram contados por meio da técnica de FISH centromérica. Os cromossomos mais comumente encontrados com erros foram Chr2, Chr6, Chr11 e Chr12. Estes dados corroboram a ideia de que alguns cromossomos são mais suscetíveis a erros de divisão celular e colaboram para maiores índices de CTPLs em certos tumores. O fenômeno Chromothripsis parece estar presente em pelo menos 30% dos tumores de osteossarcoma e pode estar contribuindo para o fenótipo mais agressivo deste tumor ósseo. / Whole genome sequencing methods applied to a number of human cancers have detected a new class of chaotic DNA alterations in tumors called Chromothripsis. This mechanism of genomic instability is relatively common in the human bone tumor osteosarcoma (OS), but there are few studies in this tumor addressing either its causes or consequences. In this thesis we initially re-analyzed the DNA copy number data using newer software designed to detect signatures of Chromothripsis-like Patterns (CTLPs) using ten OS samples previously studied by our laboratory. We found three of the osteosarcomas had Chromothripsis signatures that affected four chromosomes (2, 10, 14 and 20). The osteosarcomas with Chromothripsis had a median of 468 copy number abnormalities per tumor compared to 255 for OS tumors without Chromothripsis. Next, we compared global RNA expression levels from two OS samples with Chromothripsis to four tumors without Chromothripsis to determine the types of gene expression differences associated with this process. We found that 171 genes mapped to regions of Chromothripsis with the majority (77 genes) mainly having functions related to cellular communication and cell cycle. There were 43 genes that were related to metabolic process (mainly associated with RNA metabolism) and 27 genes with cellular component organization or biogenesis. Also, there were four genes associated with the immune system that were underexpressed (CADM1; CLEC4A; CCR1; CD164) and 12 were overexpressed (IL32, LAT, BCL3, FCAR, RFX1, ILIB, CXCL1, SPON2, CCR6, IL6, SEMA3C, GEM) in the Chromothripsis tumors. Interestingly, all the genes underexpressed also have a role in cell adhesion pathway. Cell adhesion is associated with cancer progression and metastasis. We then reanalyzed DNA copy number data from 82 OS tumors and 35 OS cell lines using microarrays datasets available in public databanks (GEO and arrayexpress), to identify potential chromosomal regions commonly involved in chaotic DNA copy number alterations, especially CTLPs. We found Chromothripsis in 27 OS samples (11 tumors and 16 cell lines), affecting 17 different chromosomes. Chromosomes 2, 8 and 12 were frequent targets of Chromothripsis in OS. Sequentially, the DNA copy number alterations were analyzed using whole genome sequence data of 12 OS tumors available from dbGaP databank to characterize chaotic alterations in detail and identify the target chromosomal regions involved in Chromothripsis. We found Chromothripsis patterns in 7 (58%) of the 12 OS samples analyzed using whole genome sequence data. In total there were12 different chromosomes involved affecting 62.5% of samples from patients that died from OS. Chromosomes 1, 2, 3, 7 and 12 were slightly more often Chromothripsis target locations. Nearly 700 genes per tumor were found in the CTLPs regions. A total of 101 genes were located in regions of copy number change that distinguished the group of OS with Chromothripsis in comparison to OS without Chromothripsis. These genes are related with cellular process (45 genes - which 17 are associated with cell communication) and metabolic process (22 genes - which 19 are associated with primary metabolic process). We were also able to compare the RNA levels from the dbGap samples when expression data was available: comparing 6 OS RNA samples with Chromothripsis to 3 OS RNA samples without Chromothripsis. Both the EdgeR and Nexus Expression pipelines showed downregulation in cell communication pathway and primary metabolic process in samples with Chromothripsis. Genes downregulated of immune system response pathway were found in both pipeline (COL8A1, CCL25). To study the chromosomes involved in micronucleus formation in the OS cell line U2OS, errors in cell division induced by drugs during the anaphase were evaluated during the sandwich period at Barts Cancer Institute in London-UK. The lagging chromosomes were counted and the most common chromosomes with errors were Chr2, Chr6, Chr11, and Chr12. These data provide further support to the idea that some chromosomes are more susceptible to cell division errors and corroborate with the chromosomes affected by CTPLs in some tumors.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-10T10:39:15Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 ANA JULIA DA CUNHA LEITE.pdf: 2339232 bytes, checksum: 9ce285061088b4ef8d6cdd81ece2961e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-03-14 / The chromosome 22q11.2 region has long been implicated in genomic diseases. Some genomic regions exhibit numerous low copy repeat with high identity in which provide increased genomic instability and mediate deletions and duplications in many disorders. DiGeorge Syndrome is the most common deletion syndrome and reciprocal duplications could be occurring in a half of the frequency of microdeletions. We described five patients with phenotypic variability that carries deletions or reciprocal duplications at 22q11.2 detected by Chromosomal Microarray Analysis. The CytoScan HD technology was used to detect changes in the genome copy number variation of patients who had clinical indication to global development delay and a normal karyotype. We observed in our study three microdeletions and two microduplications in 22q11.2 region with variable intervals contained known genes and unstudied transcripts as well as the LCRs that are often flanking and within this genomic rearrangement. The identification of these variant are of particular interest due to it may provide insight in genes or genomic regions there are crucial for specific phenotypic manifestations and are useful to assist the quest for understanding the mechanisms subjacent to genomic deletions and duplications. / A região do cromossoma 22q11.2 tem sido implicada em doenças genômicas. Algumas regiões genômicas exibem numerosas regiões de repetições de pequeno número de cópias que proporcionam o aumento da instabilidade genômica e mediam deleções e duplicações em muitas desordens. A Síndrome de DiGeorge é a síndrome de deleção mais comum e as duplicações recíprocas ocorrem na metade da frequência das microdeleções. Nós descrevemos cinco pacientes com variabilidade fenotípica que possuem deleções ou duplicações recíprocas em 22q11.2 detectados pela Análise Cromossômica por Microarray. A tecnologia CytoScan HD foi usada para detectar alterações da variação do número de cópias no genoma de pacientes que tiveram indicação clínica de atraso global no desenvolvimento com cariótipo normal. Observamos no nosso estudo três microdeleções e duas microduplicações na região 22q11.2 com intervalos variáveis onde contém genes conhecidos e transcrições não estudadas, tais como as LCRS que muitas vezes flanqueiam estes rearranjos genômicos. A identificação destas variantes são de particular interesse para fornecer uma visão dos genes ou das regiões genômicas que são cruciais para as manifestações fenotípicas específicas e são úteis para auxiliar na busca pela compreensão dos mecanismos subjacentes à deleções e duplicações genômicas.

As alterações cromossômicas estruturais associadas a fenótipos clínicos oferecem a oportunidade de identificação e localização de genes cujas mutações possam estar determinando essas patologias, tendo em vista a possibilidade de que esses genes podem ter sido alterados pelas quebras ou ter o número de cópias modificado. Um número cada vez maior de evidências aponta para a participação de certas seqüências do genoma na formação de rearranjos cromossômicos recorrentes e não recorrentes. Este trabalho compreendeu o estudo de duas translocações cromossômicas aparentemente equilibradas e uma duplicação do braço curto do cromossomo 20 em decorrência de mosaicismo materno. O objetivo foi determinar os pontos de quebra por hibridação in situ fluorescente (FISH) e identificar genes candidatos, alterados pelas quebras dos rearranjos e que pudessem explicar o quadro clínico dos portadores. A caracterização das seqüências nos pontos de quebra e a junção desses rearranjos é fundamental para a compreensão dos mecanismos de formação das alterações cromossômicas. A delimitação precisa dos segmentos deletados é necessária para a correlação com o quadro clínico. / Two apparently \"de novo\" balanced translocations and one duplication of the short arm of chromosome 20 were studied. Our aim was to determine the breakpoints by chromosomal analysis through fluorescentin situ hybridization (FISH) and identify candidate genes and how they were involved with the clinical phenotypes of the patients. Patient 1 carried a duplication of the short arm of chromosome 20 (p11.22p13), inherited from the mother that showed normal and dup(20) lymphocytes. The duplication was determined by FISH using BAC and PAC clones, and nine clones were duplicated except one (20p11.21). The patient shared many of the common characteristics of trisomy 20p including delay in motor development, hypertelorism, poor coordination, round face with prominent cheeks, vertebral and dental abnormalities and cranial asymmetry with high and large forehead. She also had learning difficulties, behavioral disorders and pubertal growth spurt at 12 years. As our patient is an example of pure trisomy 20p, the features are of particular importance to delineate the syndrome. Three genes were mapped on the segment that contain the duplication (20p11.2-13), one of these genes is the SSTR4 (Somatostatin receptor 4). The somatostatin is widely distributed throughout the body and is important regulator of endocrine and nervous system function. It is an inhibitor of growth hormone secretion. The second gene is the BMP2 that produce bone morphogenetic proteins and it has a direct function with the nervous system. The third gene is the GHRH that produce proteins connected with the growth hormone. These genes might have been over expressed and thus contributing to the patient\'s clinical features. Patient 2, carried a 46,XY,t(5;14)(q14.1;q31.3)de novo translocation. On chromosome 14 the breakpoint was mapped to a segment contained in BAC RP11-315O17 (14q31.3). On the chromosome 5 the breakpoint was mapped to a segment contained in BAC RP11-30D15 (5q14.1). Although the breakpoint, on the chromosome 14, has been mapped in 14q31.3, our patient shared many of the common characteristics of terminal 14q32 deletion: mental retardation, dolicocephaly, prominent ears, hypertelorism, strabismus, upturned palpebral fissures, highly arched palate, simian crease, severe myopia, coloboma and palpebral ptosis. As mental retardation and ocular abnormalities were the main patient\'s clinical features, we are suggesting that: 1) a region of segment 14q31.3 was deleted. 2) A gene inside this segment (14q31.3) could be responsible for ocular development and 3) a disrupted gene could interfere on the expression of other genes. On chromosome 5 eleven genes were localized and four of them are expressed in nervous system (AP3B1; SCAMP1; BHMT2 e CMYA5). One of these genes might have been disrupted and is contributing to the patient\'s clinical features. Patient 3 was the carrier of a 46,XY,t(1;15)(p13.2;q25.2)de novo translocation. The breakpoint on chromosome 15 was mapped to the segment contained in clone RP11-152F13 (15q25.2). The breakpoint on chromosome 1 was mapped to the segment contained in clone RP5-1037B23 (1p13.2). The genes mapped at the breakpoint regions of chromosome 1 and chromosome 15 are expressed in nervous system and muscles. Our patient shows few clinical features: speech delay, stutter and learning difficulties, probably because one or more of these genes, mapped at the breakpoint region, could be disrupted.

Les phénomènes évolutifs qui perturbent l’organisation des gènes dans les génomes eucaryotes sont de deux types : les changements dans l’ordre des gènes, ou réarrangements, et les modifications du contenu en gènes du génome, par duplications, délétions ou gains de gènes. Ces processus sont mal connus, tant au niveau de leurs mécanismes d’apparition que de leur impact fonctionnel et sélectif. Ce travail de thèse s’articule autour de deux projets. Le premier s’intéresse à la distribution des points de cassure de réarrangements évolutifs entre un génome ancestral et ses descendants modernes. Cette distribution a été modélisée en fonction des caractéristiques locales du génome pour mettre en évidence quels facteurs influencent la probabilité de cassure. Nos résultats montrent que la distribution des cassures peut s’expliquer simplement comme une fonction de la longueur des espaces intergéniques, fonction qui est cependant non-linéaire contrairement aux attentes sous un régime aléatoire classique. La répartition des points de cassure dans les génomes semble principalement liée à des propriétés de structure, et n’est que peu soumise à des contraintes de sélection. Elle pourrait être liée à la structure chromatinienne du génome. Le second projet s’inscrit dans le cadre du séquençage du génome du poisson zèbre, et fournit un aperçu global de l’organisation de ce génome. Les génomes de poissons téléostéens sont anciennement dupliqués : l’analyse est axée sur les conséquences de cette duplication. Les résultats montrent que le génome du poisson zèbre présente une organisation assez typique d’un génome téléostéen. Les gènes retenus en deux copies après la duplication du génome appartiennent à des catégories fonctionnelles particulières, et sont biaisés vers des gènes déjà conservés après les duplications 1R et 2R ayant eu lieu au début de l’histoire des vertébrés. / Evolutionary processes disrupting the gene organisation in eukaryotic genomes belong to two categories: changes in the order of the genes, known as rearrangements, and changes in the content of the genome by gene duplications, deletions and gains. The mechanisms through which these events arise, and their functional and selective impact on genomes, are poorly understood. This thesis covers two different projects. Firstly, we investigated the distribution of rearrangement breakpoints between an ancestral genome and its modern descendants. This distribution was modelled according to local genomic characteristics to highlight factors influencing the breakage process. Our results show that the distribution of breakpoints can be simply explained as a function of intergenic spacers length, although in a non-linear fashion differing from classical random expectations. The repartition of breakpoints in genomes seems to be linked to structural properties, and is only marginally affected by selective constraints. It might in fact reflect local chromatin structure in the genome. The second project is part of the joint sequencing effort for the zebrafish genome, and provides an overview of the organisation of this genome. Teleost fish genomes are anciently duplicated: the analysis focuses on the consequences of this duplication. Results show that the zebrafish genome displays a typical teleost fish genome organisation. Genes retained in two copies after the whole genome duplication belong to specific functional categories, and are biased towards genes already conserved as duplicates after the 1R and 2R duplication events that have taken place early in vertebrate history.