Note:

In 1994 genocide occurred in the tiny, crowded country of Rwanda in the Great Lakes region of Africa. What was unique to that genocide was its efficiency and use of low technology weapons: somewhere around 800,000 to one million persons were killed, mainly by machetes and bullets, and often by neighbors, former friends, or relatives that they knew by name. The killers had been well-prepared for their roles via myth-building and reinforcement of old fears against the victims. There was little to no international intervention, although Rwanda had close political ties with France and a colonial history with Germany and Belgium. Although dozens of books and articles have been written seeking to understand, in both practical and theoretical ways, the motivations of the killers, this research looks to add to that body of knowledge by considering the ideas of a theorist outside traditional political theory — René Girard — and how they may shed some light on the 1994 Rwandan genocide. Girard's conception of mimetic rivalry and his theorization of scapegoating illuminate society-based characteristics of political competition between well-established factions of Rwandan society. These characteristics, if subjected to various manipulations of social positioning and control, can serve to precipitate brutal acts of believed conciliatory violence against a perceived causal group. Without examining the origin of violence in society, an understanding of the 1994 genocide is incomplete, and policies designed to prevent such genocides from recurring may not be effective. / Master of Arts

Par sa vision tragique du monde, René Char semble, à première vue, bien éloigné des penseurs utopistes, moins intéressé par les lendemains qui chantent que par les dangers imminents qui guettent l’humanité. Dans un grand nombre de ses poèmes, il s'attaque aux naïfs qui se persuadent que c'est le bien qui adviendra, valorise les pessimistes dans la mesure où « ils voient de leur vivant l'objet de leur appréhension se réaliser ». Son œuvre semble parfois rejoindre les actes d'accusation faisant de l'utopie l'antichambre du goulag et des camps, la rendant responsable de la dégénérescence des états dits socialistes en systèmes totalitaires. À plusieurs reprises, Char indique qu’entre l’ethos (qui recommande d’arrimer la poésie et la pensée au réel) et l’utopos (qui s’élabore à l’écart de la réalité du monde) il ne peut surgir qu’une incompatibilité essentielle. Mais s'en tenir là serait ignorer que tout une part de sa poésie demeure également marquée par le « principe espérance ». Si ses recueils du début des années 1930 sont traversés par le désir d’un « monde en tout renouvelé de l’attractif », certains de ses écrits plus tardifs sont également ponctués d’« images-souhaits » de la conscience désirante, d’évocations de lieux rêvés : « ville imperforée » ou « pays d’à côté », « citadelle idéale » ou « perfection à la fois territoriale et inspirée du bien commun ». Bien que Char se soit de nombreuses fois attaqué aux utopies du futur, il convient de se demander si on ne peut trouver à l'intérieur même de sa critique une invitation à penser l'utopie autrement. / By virtue of his tragic vision of the world, René Char initially appears to be far from a utopian. He is less interested in “enchanting dawns” than in the imminent dangers that await humanity. In many poems he attacks the naïve who believe that good will triumph, and values instead the pessimists “who see in their very lifetime the realization of what they most feared.” For this reason, Char has been placed alongside those who view utopia as the foyer of gulags and concentration camps, and hold utopianism responsible for the degeneration of so-called “socialist” states into totalitarian ones. Char suggests several times that between ethos (which encourages the adherence of poetry and thought to reality) and utopos (which distances us from the reality of the world) only an essential incompatibility can arise. To leave the question of utopia at this, however, is to ignore how a whole dimension of Char’s poetry is equally inspired by the “principle of hope.” His poetry from the early 1930s flows from a desire for “a world in every respect renewed by the attractive.” His later works are equally filled with “wish-images” of desiring consciousness, evocations of dreamed places – be it an “imperforate city,” a “country at the margins,” an “ideal citadel” or, indeed, “perfection, both earthly and inspired by the common good.” While Char has on several occasions taken it upon himself to attack future-oriented utopias, it is necessary to ask whether, from within this very criticism, we may find instead an invitation to think utopia otherwise

Apresentamos a hipótese de que o modelo democrático representativo, quando aplicado a grupos e organizações, pode cumprir a função psíquica de intermediário entre o desejo dos membros de evitar o estabelecimento de um vínculo tirânico com o líder e, ao mesmo tempo, evitar os conflitos da convivência. Para abordar o tema, utilizamos o método de entrevista de história de vida, tendo como sujeito de pesquisa um sindicalista que, por 20 anos seguidos, atuou em um sindicato ligado à justiça federal do estado de São Paulo. A presente pesquisa tinha como objetivo refletir sobre o lugar do representante no grupo, em oposição ao lugar de líder. A partir dos dados obtidos, foi possível levantar a hipótese de que, enquanto o líder está investido em seu Eu Narcísico e onipotente, o representante identifica seu Ideal do Eu com os ideais do grupo, podendo postergar a satisfação de seus ideais em troca de ser reconhecido pelo grupo. Assim, o líder, ao receber uma transferência narcísica do grupo, pode pretender retomar o lugar do Pai da horda e, através da violência ou da sedução, exigir para si uma parcela quase total de poder. O representante, por outro lado, assume um lugar de tabu, recebendo uma transferência de poder para exercer funções típicas do papel de intermediário, mas, nesse caso, o grupo mantém o poder de destitui-lo de seu papel e massacrá-lo (mesmo que simbolicamente). No caso estudado, pudemos observar o sindicalista entrevistado exercendo esse papel de representante, a partir de posições que se repetiram ao longo de sua vida. Ocupou, a nosso ver, o papel de intermediário entre as pressões do momento democrático que o país viveu em 1988/1989 e os ideais autocráticos dos partidos de esquerda, que aqui representaram o grupo que buscava um vínculo tirânico em relação à categoria. O entrevistado viu-se enredado em uma trama de vínculos e na repetição de rituais que terminaram em uma crise que levou à sua ruptura com o grupo. Tal ruptura o levou a uma posição de ostracismo e lhe causou um intenso sofrimento, que o levou a uma depressão / We present the hypothesis that the representative democratic model, when applied to groups and organizations, can meet the psychic role of intermediary between the desire of members to avoid the establishment of a tyrannical relationship with the leader and, at the same time, avoid conflicts of coexistence. To address this issue, we used the method of life history interview, and as a research subject, a union trade representative that for 20 straight years, worked in a union linked to the federal courts of the state of São Paulo. This research aimed to reflect on the place of the representative in the group, as opposed to the place of leader. From the data obtained, it was possible to hypothesize that while the leader is invested in his narcissistic and omnipotent ego, the representative identifies his Ideal Ego with the ideals of the group, may postpone the fulfillment of his ideals in exchange for being recognized by the group. Thus, the leader receives a narcissistic transference from the group; he may want to regain the place of the Father of the horde, through violence or seduction, demanding for himself an almost total share of power. The representative , on the other hand, assumes a place of taboo , receiving a transfer of power to perform typical functions of an intermediary role , but in this case , the group has the power to depose him from his paper and slay him (even symbolically) . In our case, we observed the respondent exercising this role, from positions that were repeated throughout his life. He occupied, in our point of view, the role of intermediary between the pressures of democratic moment that the country experienced in 1988/1989 and the autocratic ideals of the Left parties, which represented here the group that seeks a tyrannical link with the category. The respondent found himself entangled in a web of bonds and the repetition of rituals that ended in a crisis that led to his departure from the group. This rupture led him to a position of ostracism and caused him intense suffering, which led to a depression

A partir da análise da peça Vale das facas voadoras, do dramaturgo e diretor alemão René Pollesch, procura-se abordar a obra desse diretor, bem como, refletir sobre as possibilidades que ele apresenta para dar conta de uma crítica da ideologia que sobreviva a um ambiente Pós-Moderno, segundo a definição do teórico americano Fredric Jameson. / Starting from the analysis of the play Valley of flying knives, written by German playwright and director René Pollesch, the dissertation seeks to analyze the work of this director, as well as reflect on the possibilities it has to account for a critique of ideology that survives to a Postmodern environment, as defined by the American theorist Fredric Jameson.

Le fonds d’archives Jean-René Brutsch, logé au Défap à Paris, a inspiré la présente étude portant sur la transculturation en contexte missionnaire au Cameroun. L’analyse de ce concept conduit à croiser et à renouveler les regards sur les diverses modalités et formes de religiosité générées par la rencontre entre les cultures autochtones et la proposition occidentale chrétienne, ainsi que la créativité multiforme qui en découle.L’hypothèse soutenue est que toute entreprise mettant en contact des peuples ou des manières de penser différentes mobilise nécessairement des transactions culturelles à l’issue desquelles les deux parties se trouvent transformées. Le choix de traiter de ce thème à travers l'expérience de Jean-René Brutsch, le missionnaire qui l’a constitué durant ses différents séjours au Cameroun de 1946 en 1960, est justifié par la richesse et la pertinence du contenu de ces archives. Deux centres d’intérêt majeurs se dégagent de l’exploitation du fonds Brutsch à savoir, l’historiographie et la missiologie. (etc.] / The fond Jean-René Brutsch’s archives, based in Defap at Paris, inspired this study carried out on transculturation in Cameroonian missionary context. The analysis of this concept leads to cross and to renew views on diverse modalities and forms of religiosity, which generated from the meeting between local cultures and western proposal, thus the multiform creativity emanating from it. The foregoing hypothesis upholds that any undertaking bringing together different peoples and different modes of thought inevitably galvanizes cultural transactions where the different parties end up being inevitably transformed. The choice of studying this theme through the experience of Jean-René Brutsch, the missionary who constituted them during his various sojourn in Cameroon from 1946 to 1960, is made feasible by the richness and relevance of the content of these archives. Two main centers of interest emerge from the exploitation of Brutsch’s collections, namely, historiography and missiology. [etc.]

Syftet med detta arbete är utifrån litteraturuppgifter samt analys beskriva Salvador Dalis och René Magrittes konstnärliga arbetsmetod, och utifrån detta göra en egen visuell gestaltning. Metoden jag har använt mig utav är litteratur, bildandalys och konstnärliga gestaltningar.Salvador Dalis metod i Minnets beständighet bygger på gränslöshet och fantasi, med tydliga semiotiska inslag. Du som betraktare avgör vad som ses, vill du se målningarna enkelt och bara uppleva det som är målat, eller vill betraktaren sjunka in i en värld av nyskapande, suddiga gränser och bortom alla regler. René Magrittes metod bygger i Människosonen på naturliga och trovärdiga drag, hans målning framstå som verklig fast med en touch av fantasi, med sparsamma drag av semiotik. / The purpose of this work is based on literature data and analysis describing the Salvador Dali and René Magritte's artistic working method, and accordingly make its own visual interpretation. The method I used is out literature, bildandalys and artistic depictions.Salvador Dali's method of memory resistance based on the boundlessness and fantasy, with distinct semiotic elements. You as a viewer decides what is seen, you want to see the paintings simple and just experience what is painted, or want the viewer to sink into a world of innovative, blurred boundaries and beyond all rules. René Magritte's method is based in the Son of man on natural and credible move, his painting appear to be real solid with a touch of fantasy, with sparse features of semiotics.

Les motoristes aéronautiques doivent désormais montrer que la présence de petites anomalies de surface, pouvant être introduites lors d’opérations de maintenance, ne mènent pas à la rupture des pièces, et ce sur toute la durée de vie du moteur. Cette étude concerne la caractérisation de la nocivité d’anomalies de surface de type rayure et choc sur la tenue en fatigue du superalliage à base nickel René 65.Afin de découpler les effets de géométrie des effets de contraintes résiduelles, les rayures et les chocs possèdent un profil géométrique identique en V. Une technique de suivi de potentiel 3 points a été mise en place dans le but d’améliorer la détection de l’amorçage et d’avoir une information sur la morphologie du front de fissure. Les résultats expérimentaux montrent un amorçage rapide et un fort ralentissement de la vitesse de propagation dans les premiers stades. Nous avons également observé, par le biais de marquages thermiques, une évolution particulière de la forme du front de fissure s’amorçant au fond des rayures.L’utilisation de traitement thermique de relaxation a alors montré que c’est le champ mécanique hétérogène créé lors de la fabrication de ces anomalies qui contrôle la durée de vie et que c’est le paramètre physique d’ordre un à modéliser.Une stratégie de modélisation de la propagation de fissures à partir d’anomalies de type choc a été proposée. Celle-ci est basée sur la connaissance du champ de contraintes résiduelles par des simulations numériques, et sur l’application de ce champ dans un modèle numérique de propagation. Les résultats ont permis de confirmer que les contraintes résiduelles étaient bien la source du ralentissement de la propagation et également responsables de l’évolution de la forme du front de fissure. Ils ont également permis d’identifier les paramètres qui doivent être mesurés lors des contrôles non destructifs. / Anomalies, introduced during maintenance operations, are not critical for in-service life of a component. This study was undertaken to characterise the harmfulness of scratch and dent anomalies on the fatigue behaviour of the nickel based superalloy René 65.In order to separate the effects of the geometry and the residual stresses, scratches and dents have the same V-type profile. A 3 points DCPD method has been used to improve the detection of the initiation and also to have information about the crack front morphology. Experimental results showed that the initiation fatigue life is short and a slowdown of the fatigue crack growth in the first stages. We also observed, thanks to heat tints marking, aparticular crack front morphology for cracks initiating from scratches. Heat treatment has been used and showed that the heterogeneous mechanical field induced by the fabrication of the anomalies controls the fatigue life and that it constitutes one of the parameters to be taken into account in a future modelling. A modelling strategy of the crack propagation from dent anomalies has been developed. This model is based on the knowledge of the residual stress field by finite elements simulations, and the application of the calculated stress field in a numerical crackgrowth model. The results confirmed that the residual stresses were the physical source of the fatigue crack growth slow-down and also responsible for the evolution of the crack front morphology. They also allowed us to identify the parameters which have to be measured during non-destructive testing.

Apresentamos a hipótese de que o modelo democrático representativo, quando aplicado a grupos e organizações, pode cumprir a função psíquica de intermediário entre o desejo dos membros de evitar o estabelecimento de um vínculo tirânico com o líder e, ao mesmo tempo, evitar os conflitos da convivência. Para abordar o tema, utilizamos o método de entrevista de história de vida, tendo como sujeito de pesquisa um sindicalista que, por 20 anos seguidos, atuou em um sindicato ligado à justiça federal do estado de São Paulo. A presente pesquisa tinha como objetivo refletir sobre o lugar do representante no grupo, em oposição ao lugar de líder. A partir dos dados obtidos, foi possível levantar a hipótese de que, enquanto o líder está investido em seu Eu Narcísico e onipotente, o representante identifica seu Ideal do Eu com os ideais do grupo, podendo postergar a satisfação de seus ideais em troca de ser reconhecido pelo grupo. Assim, o líder, ao receber uma transferência narcísica do grupo, pode pretender retomar o lugar do Pai da horda e, através da violência ou da sedução, exigir para si uma parcela quase total de poder. O representante, por outro lado, assume um lugar de tabu, recebendo uma transferência de poder para exercer funções típicas do papel de intermediário, mas, nesse caso, o grupo mantém o poder de destitui-lo de seu papel e massacrá-lo (mesmo que simbolicamente). No caso estudado, pudemos observar o sindicalista entrevistado exercendo esse papel de representante, a partir de posições que se repetiram ao longo de sua vida. Ocupou, a nosso ver, o papel de intermediário entre as pressões do momento democrático que o país viveu em 1988/1989 e os ideais autocráticos dos partidos de esquerda, que aqui representaram o grupo que buscava um vínculo tirânico em relação à categoria. O entrevistado viu-se enredado em uma trama de vínculos e na repetição de rituais que terminaram em uma crise que levou à sua ruptura com o grupo. Tal ruptura o levou a uma posição de ostracismo e lhe causou um intenso sofrimento, que o levou a uma depressão / We present the hypothesis that the representative democratic model, when applied to groups and organizations, can meet the psychic role of intermediary between the desire of members to avoid the establishment of a tyrannical relationship with the leader and, at the same time, avoid conflicts of coexistence. To address this issue, we used the method of life history interview, and as a research subject, a union trade representative that for 20 straight years, worked in a union linked to the federal courts of the state of São Paulo. This research aimed to reflect on the place of the representative in the group, as opposed to the place of leader. From the data obtained, it was possible to hypothesize that while the leader is invested in his narcissistic and omnipotent ego, the representative identifies his Ideal Ego with the ideals of the group, may postpone the fulfillment of his ideals in exchange for being recognized by the group. Thus, the leader receives a narcissistic transference from the group; he may want to regain the place of the Father of the horde, through violence or seduction, demanding for himself an almost total share of power. The representative , on the other hand, assumes a place of taboo , receiving a transfer of power to perform typical functions of an intermediary role , but in this case , the group has the power to depose him from his paper and slay him (even symbolically) . In our case, we observed the respondent exercising this role, from positions that were repeated throughout his life. He occupied, in our point of view, the role of intermediary between the pressures of democratic moment that the country experienced in 1988/1989 and the autocratic ideals of the Left parties, which represented here the group that seeks a tyrannical link with the category. The respondent found himself entangled in a web of bonds and the repetition of rituals that ended in a crisis that led to his departure from the group. This rupture led him to a position of ostracism and caused him intense suffering, which led to a depression

A partir da análise da peça Vale das facas voadoras, do dramaturgo e diretor alemão René Pollesch, procura-se abordar a obra desse diretor, bem como, refletir sobre as possibilidades que ele apresenta para dar conta de uma crítica da ideologia que sobreviva a um ambiente Pós-Moderno, segundo a definição do teórico americano Fredric Jameson. / Starting from the analysis of the play Valley of flying knives, written by German playwright and director René Pollesch, the dissertation seeks to analyze the work of this director, as well as reflect on the possibilities it has to account for a critique of ideology that survives to a Postmodern environment, as defined by the American theorist Fredric Jameson.