I detta examensarbete har undersökningar kring finfrästa ytor i härdat verktygsstål utförts i samarbete med verktygsstålsproducenten Uddeholms AB i Hagfors. Vid spånskärande bearbetning påverkas materialet ibland negativt. En försöksserie om totalt 90 finfrästa ytor i härdade varmarbetsstålen Uddeholm Orvar Supreme och Uddeholm Dievar har frästs, mätts och utvärderats för att ta reda på hur fräsprocessen inverkar på materialets egenskaper. Det visar sig att materialet påverkas olika mycket beroende på hur fräsningen utförs och med vilken typ av fräsverktyg som används. I detta arbete har endast ändradiefräsar av solid hårdmetall använts. Analysen av ytorna har gjorts med en rad mätmetoder så som optisk ytjämnhetsmätning, hårdhetsmätning med Vickersmetoden, restspänningsmätning med röntgendiffraktion och okulär inspektion av stålets mikrostruktur i ljusmikroskop. Mätningarna utfördes för att se hur materialet påverkas mekaniskt av bearbetningen.   I de mest ogynnsamma försöksfallen är den mekaniska påverkan från fräsbearbetningen av stålets ytor så stor att bearbetningen riskerar försämra tillverkade komponenters livslängd sett ur utmattningssynpunkt. Målet med arbetet är att identifiera det mest gynnsamma sätt fräsningen kan utföras på för att kunna minimera påverkan på materialets egenskaper. Detta ger möjligheten för Uddeholms AB att ge faktabaserade råd till sina kunder om vilket körsätt som ger minsta påverkan av verktygsstålet vid bearbetning. Kunderna kan nyttja då materialet till dess fulla kapacitet. / In this thesis, investigations on hardened finish milled surfaces was done in collaboration with the tool steel manufacturer Uddeholms AB in Hagfors, Sweden. The steel material is affected by machining operations, sometimes in a negative destructive manner. An experimental test series containing a total of 90 surfaces in hot work steels Uddeholm Orvar Supreme and Uddeholm Dievar were milled, measured and evaluated to clarify the milling operations effect on the steels mechanical properties. It was found that the material is affected differently according to how the milling was preformed and with which type of milling tool. In this thesis, only solid carbide end-radius milling tools were used. The surface analysis were conducted with a range of measuring techniques including optical surface roughness measurements, hardness measurements in Vickers scale, residual stress measurements with X-ray diffraction (XRD) and microstructural analysis with optical light microscope. These measurements were conducted in order to determine the milling operations mechanical affects and grade of alteration of the tool steels surfaces. In the least favorable cases, the effect from machining are so profound, that degradation of produced components can be expected in terms of fatigue wear resistance. The goal of the thesis is to identify the most favorable process parameters, in order to minimize degradation of the tooling material in customer user cases, together with the opportunity to give fact based advice to Uddeholms AB customers on the most favorable process parameters in finish milling with radius-mills of hardened hot work tool steels. In this way the customer can utilize the tooling material at its full potential.

Nous proposons dans cette thèse des modèles éléments finis pour décrire les phénomènes de flambage que l'on rencontre souvent en laminage des tôles minces. Partant d'un modèle simplifié qui suppose le mode de flambage harmonique dans le sens du laminage, le code permet de détecter des points de bifurcations, de décrire le comportement en post-flambage ou encore d'analyser l'influence de la traction globale sur les tailles de défauts et les modes de flambage. Le modèle n'étant pas prévu pour tenir compte des chargements complexes en laminage, nous avons proposé un autre modèle plus complet tenant compte de toutes les composantes des contraintes résiduelles et capable de coupler les phénomènes en amont comme en aval de l'emprise (emprise-flambage). Les modèles existants traitent généralement un couplage itératif entre l'emprise et le flambage (Thèse d’Abdelkhalek) ou un couplage direct, mais ce dernier est limité pour représenter les modes de flambage (Thèse de Counhaye). Dans cette thèse, nous proposons un couplage direct entre l'emprise et le flambage utilisant un code de laminage LAM3 pour décrire l'emprise et un modèle coque pour décrire le flambage. Nous avons utilisé la méthode Arlequin pour coupler les deux modèles. Cette méthode de couplage très prometteuse, est l'une des plus flexibles qui traite le couplage par superposition ou collage des modèles possédant des propriétés différentes. L'originalité du modèle développé réside essentiellement dans le déplacement de la zone de couplage à chaque incrément de temps. Pour valider le modèle développé, nous avons effectué des cas tests notamment un cas industriel et des cas académiques de laminage pouvant engendrer des défauts bords longs tout comme des plis longitudinaux que l'on observe souvent à la sortie de l'emprise. Les résultats issus de ce code ont été validés avec des mesures expérimentales et avec des modèles de références. Le modèle prédit bien les contraintes relaxées après flambage et montre bien les défauts de planéité correspondants / We propose in this thesis finite element models to describe buckling phenomena that are often encountered in thin sheet rolling processes. Starting with a simplified model assuming buckling mode as being harmonic in the rolling direction, the code can detect the bifurcation points and describe post-buckling behavior. The model is not intended to reflect complex rolling loads, we proposed another more complete model taking into account all components of the residual stresses and able to couple the phenomena at the upstream of the roll mill with the buckling phenomena at the downstream domain. Existing models generally treat iterative couplings between the zone under the bite and the buckling phenomena (Abdelkhalek's thesis) or direct coupling but it is limited to represent buckling modes (Counhaye's thesis). In this thesis, we propose a direct coupling between the upstream of the roll mill and the downstream domain using a rolling code LAM3 to describe the bite and a shell model to describe buckling phenomena in the downstream domain of the sheet. We used Arlequin method which is one of the most flexible coupling techniques to couple both models. This method leads to a partition of the space, each model being valid in a part of the domain. Both models should be considered valid in intersection of two zones. The key points are the definitions of a moving coupling zone, of a relevant coupling operator and of a simple procedure to build varying meshes.To validate the proposed model, we performed some test cases including an industrial case and academic rolling test cases including edge-wave defects or local folds out of the roll mill. The results have been validated by comparison with experimental measurements and with reference models

The procedure of joining flexible or nonrigid parts using applied loads is called compliant assembly, and it is widely used in automotive, aerospace, electronics, and appliance manufacturing. Uncontrolled assembly processes may produce geometric errors that can exceed design tolerances and induce an increment of elastic energy in the structure due to the accumulation of internal stresses. This condition might create unexpected deformations and residual stress distributions across the structure that compromise product functionality. This thesis presents a method based on nonlinear Finite Element Analysis (FEA), metamodelling, and optimization techniques to provide accurate and on-time shimming strategies to support the definition of optimum assembly strategies. An example of the method on a typical aerospace wing box structure is demonstrated in the present study. The delivered outputs intend to support the production line by anticipating the response of the structure under a specific assembly condition and presenting alternative assembly strategies that can be applied to address eventual predicted issues on product requirements. / Graduate

Analytical methods or implicit finite element method (FEM) with beam elements to model straightened bar were used to analyze straightening process in multi-staggered cross-roll straighteners up to now. These are effective but require certain simplifications. Aim of this thesis is to create an explicit FEM model allowing usage of solid elements for circular bar without disproportional increase of computational time. This may lead to deeper understanding of the straightening process. The model is to be verified using straightening tables and then used to quantify influence of rollers configuration on results of the straightening process.

Es werden hydrostatisch stranggepresste Aluminium/Magnesium-Verbunde untersucht. Mittels verschiedener Rissdetektionsmethoden wird die Beschaffenheit des Interface analysiert. Es erfolgt die Bestimmung von Fließkurven der verpressten Einzelwerkstoffe bei Raumtemperatur. Des Weiteren erfolgen Eigenspannungsanalysen mit dem Bohrlochverfahren und einer speziellen numerischen Auswertungsmethode, welche den Entstehungsprozess der Eigenspannungen berücksichtigt. Zur Analyse der Festigkeitseigenschaften und des Deformationsverhaltens des Interface werden Biegeversuche in einem erweiterten Temperaturbereich durchgeführt. Die Deformationsanalyse erfolgt mittels Digital Image Correlation. Des Weiteren finden in den Festigkeitsuntersuchungen Push-Out-Versuche Anwendung. In bruchmechanischen Analysen wird die Interfacerissspitze von speziell entwickelten Proben unter Mode I-Bedingungen, bezogen auf den homogenen Fall, beansprucht. Die bruchmechanischen Größen – kritischer betragsmäßiger Spannungsintensitätsfaktor und kritische Energiefreisetzungsrate – werden auf Basis der Experimente, der numerischen Simulation der Rissspitzenbeanspruchung sowie der für die linear-elastische Bruchmechanik des Interfacerisses geltenden Nahfeldgleichungen berechnet. / Hydrostatic coextruded aluminum/magnesium compounds are analyzed. By means of different methods of crack detection, the quality of the interface is investigated. Plastic behavior of the basic materials at room temperature is determined. Furthermore, residual stress analyses are performed using the hole drilling method and a special numerical evaluation procedure, which considers the formation process of the residual stresses. The strength and deformation behavior of the interface are determined by means of bending tests in an extended temperature range. Digital Image Correlation is used to analyze the deformation. Furthermore, push out tests are performed to determine the interface strength. In the course of fracture mechanical analyses, the crack tip of specially developed specimens is stressed under Mode I conditions (relating to homogeneous material). The fracture mechanical values – critical absolute value of the stress intensity factor and critical energy release rate – are determined by the use of experiments, numerical analyses of the crack tip fields as well as the equations of the linear elastic near field equations of interface fracture mechanics.

Comprehensive analysis of the ringcore method used for the determination of the residual stresses in mechanical components is presented in this thesis. Principles, advantages, disadvantages and applicability of this semidestructive experimental method are discussed too. At the same time the ringcore method is compared with the hole drilling method, which is used more frequently. All aspects of the ringcore method are analyzed by the finite element method. FE simulations, performed on the universal numerical model, verified principles of the integral method and the incremental strain method. FE simulations also provided basic information for the uncertainty analysis, which significantly affects the accuracy of the residual stress measurement. The main goal, which the present work deals with, is to create a global overview of all ringcore methods´ aspects elaborated in a clear and complex form.

Die Arbeit behandelt die zerstörungsfreie Eigenspannungsbestimmung in Silizium von 3D-integrierten Mikrosystemen am Beispiel Wolfram gefüllter TSVs. Dafür wurden die Verfahren der röntgenographischen Spannungsanalyse und der Raman-Spektroskopie genutzt. Interpretiert und verglichen wurden die Ergebnisse mit FE-Simulationen. Als Proben standen Querschliffe eines Doppelchip-Systems zur Verfügung, in denen der obere Chip Wolfram-TSVs enthielt. Beide Chips wurden mit dem Kupfer-Zinn-SLID-Verfahren gebondet. In Experimenten und Simulation konnte der Einfluss von Wolfram-TSVs auf die Netzebenendehnung im Silizium nachgewiesen werden. Die FE-Simulationen zeigen im Silizium Spannungen zwischen -20 und 150 MPa, wenn intrinsische Schichteigenspannungen des Wolframs vernachlässigt werden. Direkt am TSV entwickeln sich Spannungsgradienten von einigen 10 MPa pro Mikrometer. Für die röntgenographische Spannungsanalyse wurden Röntgenbeugungsmessungen am PETRA III-Ring des DESY durchgeführt. Dafür wurde der 2-Theta-Raum in Linienscans untersucht und Beugungsdiagramme aufgenommen. Die ermittelten Dehnungen liegen im Bereich von einigen 10E-5, was uniaxialen Spannungen zwischen 5 und 10MPa entspricht. Im Fall kleiner Gradienten werden die Verläufe der FE-Simulation zufriedenstellend bestätigt. Starke Spannungsgradienten, die sich in wenigen Mikrometern Abstand um das TSV entwickeln, konnten über eine Profilanalyse des Beugungspeaks bestimmt werden. Aus den Ergebnissen lässt sich schließen, dass lateral eng begrenzte Spannungsgradienten von 170 MPa pro µm in TSV-Nähe existieren. Verglichen wurden diese Ergebnisse mit Hilfe der Raman-Spektroskopie. Sowohl die Ergebnisse der Röntgenographischen Spannungsanalyse als auch die der Raman-Spektroskopie lassen darauf schließen, dass die Spannungsgradienten im Silizium in unmittelbarer Nähe zum TSV höher sind als von der FE-Simulation vorhergesagt. Des Weiteren wurde in der Arbeit eine universelle Röntgenbeugung- und Durchstrahlungssimulation XSIM entwickelt, die das Ray-Tracing-Modell nutzt und neben kinematischer und dynamischer Beugung auch optional Rayleigh- und Compton-Streuung berücksichtigt. / This thesis covers the non-destructive determination of residual stress inside Silicon of 3D-integrated micro systems using the example of Tungsten-filled TSVs by X-ray stress analysis and Raman spectroscopy. The results were interpreted and compared by FE-simulations. Double-die systems with Tungsten-TSVs at the top-die were prepared as cross-sections and used as specimens. Both dies were bonded by a Copper-Tin-SLID interconnect. The influence of Tungsten-TSVs on the lattice spacing in Silicon could be demonstrated by experiment as well as in FE-simulations. The FE reveals in Silicon stress between -20 and 150 MPa, if intrinsic stress of deposition inside Tungsten is neglected. The Silicon-Tungsten-interface develops stress gradients of some 10 MPa per micron. The X-ray diffraction measurements for the stress analysis were conducted at the PETRA III-Ring at DESY. The reciprocal 2-Theta-space was investigated by line scans and diffraction patterns were recorded. The registered strain is in the range of some 10E-5, what results in uniaxial stress between 5 and 10 MPa. The strain distributions at line scans of the FE were satisfyingly approved in case of small gradients. Large stress gradients were determined by a profile analysis of the diffraction peak. The investigation shows that stress gradients up to 170 MPa pro micron are present close to the TSV. The results were compared by Raman-spectroscopy. Both X-ray stress analysis and Raman-spectroscopy indicate larger stress gradients nearby the Tungsten-TSV than proposed by the FE-simulation. In addition a universal X-ray diffraction and radiography simulation named XSIM was developed within that thesis. A ray-tracing model was applied to that simulation. XSIM covers both kinematical and dynamical diffraction and optionally allows for Rayleigh and Compton scattering.

<p>A large rectangular industrial duct consists of plates stiffened with parallel wide flange sections. The plates along with stiffeners acts to resist the pressure loads and to carry other loads to the supports. The behaviours of the components of large industrial ducts are significantly different from the behaviours on which the current design methods are based on. Investigation presented herein deals with the design methods for spacing stiffeners, proportioning stiffeners and calculating shear resistance of side panel.</p> <p>Current method of spacing stiffeners is based on large deflection plate theory. A parametric study was conducted on dimensionless parameters identified in order to benefit from membrane action in partially yielding plate for spacing stiffeners. Design equations were established in terms of dimensionless pressure, plate slenderness and normalized out-of-plane deflection for three cases namely; 0%, 16.5% and 33% of through thickness yielding of the plate. Results show that approximately 50% increase in stiffener spacing when yielding of 16.5% of thickness is permitted.</p> <p>Under suction type pressure load, the unsupported compression flange and restrained tension flange lead to distortional buckling of the stiffeners. The current methods do not address distortional buckling adequately. A parametric study on dimensionless parameters governing the behaviour and strength of stiffened plat panels was conducted. The study indicated that the behaviour and strength of the stiffened panels could be a function of web slenderness and overall slenderness of the stiffener. The study also identified the slenderness limit of stiffener web for which the stiffener reaches the yield moment capacity. This study demonstrated the conservatism of current method. Finally a method was established to calculate the strength of stiffened plate panel subjected lateral pressure.</p> <p>Side panels adjacent to the supports transfer large amount of shear to the supports and, in addition, resist internal pressure. Currently the design of side panels for shear is based on the methods used for the web of fabricated plate girders. The behaviour and the characteristics between the web of plate girder and the thin side panels are significantly different. A parametric study was conducted on dimensionless parameters identified. It was concluded that the plate slenderness dominates the normalized shear strength of stockier side panels. The aspect ratio and plate slenderness influence the normalized shear strength of slender side panels. Design methods to calculate the shear strength of side panels were proposed.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

This thesis describes the design, manufacture and characterisation of thick vacuum plasma sprayed tungsten (W) coatings on steel substrates. Fusion is a potentially clean, sustainable, energy source in which nuclear energy is generated via the release of internal energy from nuclei. In order to fuse nuclei the Coulomb barrier must be breached - requiring extreme temperatures or pressures – akin to creating a ‘star in a box’. Tungsten is a promising candidate material for future fusion reactors due to a high sputtering threshold and melting temperature. However, the large coefficient of thermal expansion mismatch with reactor structural steels such as the low activation steel Eurofer’97 is a major manufacturing and in-service problem. A vacuum plasma spraying approach for the manufacture of tungsten and tungsten/steel graded coatings has been developed successfully. The use of graded coatings and highly textured 3D interface surfi-sculpt substrates has been investigated to allow the deposition of thick plasma sprayed tungsten coatings on steel substrates. Finite element models have been developed to understand the residual stresses that develop in W/steel systems and made use of experimental measurements of coating thermal history during manufacture and elastic moduli measured by nano-indentation. For both the graded and surfi-sculpt coating, the models have been used to understand the mechanism of residual stress redistribution and relief in comparison with simple W on steel coatings, particularly by consideration of stored strain energy. In the case of surfi-sculpt W coatings, the patterned substrate gave rise to regular stress concentrating features, and allowed 2mm thick W coatings to be produced reproducibly without delamination. Preliminary through thickness residual stress measurements were compared to model predictions and provided tentative evidence of significant W coating stress relief by regulated coating segmentation.

An effective procedure and parameter window was developed for underwater friction stir welding (UWFSW) 304L stainless steel with a PCBN tool. UWFSW produced statistically significant: increases in yield strengths, decreases in percent elongation. The ultimate tensile strength was found to be significantly higher at certain parameters. Although sigma was identified in the UWFSWs, a significant reduction of sigma was found in UWFSWs compared to ambient FSWs. The degree of sensitization in UWFSWs was evaluated using double loop EPR testing and oxalic acid electro-etched metallography. Results were compared to base metal, ambient FSW, and arc welds. Upper and lower sensitization localization bands were identified in the UWFSWs. Although higher sensitization levels were present in UWFSWs compared to the arc weld, ambient FSW, and heat treated base metals, the UWFSWs were found less susceptible to corrosion than arc welds due to the subsurface location of the sensitization bands. A SCC analysis of UWFSWs relative to base metal and arc weldments was performed. U-bends were exposed to two 3.5% NaCl cyclic immersion experiments at 21 °C and 63 °C for 1000 hours each. A tertiary test was conducted in a 25% NaCl boiling solution. The UWFSW u-bends were no more susceptible to SCC than base metal in the cyclic immersion tests. In the boiling NaCl test, the SCC of the UWFSWs showed significant improvement over the SCC of arc welds. Arc u-bends cracked entirely within the weld bead and HAZ, while SCC in the UWFSWs showed no cracking localization.