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The passage of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (2004) increased educators' awareness of Response to Intervention (RTI) as a means of providing high-quality instruction and interventions matched to student needs. The challenges that came with RTI were meeting every student's need, implementing scientific research-based interventions, and expecting mastery of grade-level standards. The purpose of this study was to create a foundation of knowledge through exploratory case study interviews in 4 rural school districts in East Tennessee. All participants were certified teachers of kindergarten, 1st grade, or 2nd grade students. The guided interview approach was used to identify teachers' perceptions of implementing RTI in the classroom. The research questions addressed quality of RTI professional development activities, meeting RTI criteria of at-risk students, supporting role of administration, RTI impacting or benefiting students' academic growth, and effectiveness of RTI in the classroom. The findings of this study revealed all participants perceived RTI was necessary in meeting all students' needs. Teachers did not perceive RTI useful only for at-risk students but for every academic level of student in the classroom. However, to implement RTI effectively, teachers' perceived it beneficial to have a literacy coach or reading specialist in the building and to have administration's support. Recommendations for implementing RTI successfully were based on the data analysis.

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School-age children are at high risk of experiencing traumatic and stressful events that can negatively impact their academic, emotional, and behavior performance (Brock et al., 2016). Any stressful situation (i.e., natural disaster) or adverse childhood experience (ACE) can potentially become a traumatic event for a child or adolescent. The current literature indicates that 60% of children experience at least one ACE, putting them at high risk for a variety of health and social problems (Manyema et al., 2018). Natural disasters adversely impact children's life as they have the potential to destroy physical structures and injure the child or family members. According to Inoue and colleagues (2018) natural disasters can additionally be considered as an ACE. The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between PTSD symptoms of students who have experienced a natural disaster (e.g., hurricane exposure) and students’ internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Participants included 75 students from elementary, middle, and high school in a school district in the Southeastern United States. Linear regression showed that PTSD symptoms are significantly correlated with internalizing and externalizing behaviors. However, moderation and interaction effects showed that he type of hurricane exposure did not significantly moderate the relationship between PTSD symptoms and students' internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Implications from these results suggest that trauma-informed strategies are needed for students that are exposed to a traumatic event.

Effective interventions are imperative for students who are at-risk for academic failure. Response to Intervention (RTI), a service delivery framework, is gaining momentum in schools as it aims to provide effective and appropriate interventions of varying degrees. Frequently used in the form of a three-tier process, RTI addresses academic and behavioral deficits for students first at a school-wide level; next, at an individualized level; and finally, at a more intense individualized level. This study examined the effects of video self-modeling (VSM) as a Tier 2 RTI for two students in general education classrooms. Both students exhibited low rates of on-task behavior and were considered at-risk for academic failure. The first participant received intervention prior to his general education first grade math lesson. The second participant received intervention prior to his general education sixth grade writing lesson. The results of the study indicate that this method of intervention has potential. In spite of uncontrollable confounding variables, both participants' average on-task behavior minimally increased (by 6 and 3 percentage points respectively) over the course of intervention. Neither student was referred for Tier 3 interventions nor was classified as having a disability. Video self-modeling as a Tier 2 intervention may provide substantial instruction for students with learning deficits, thus reducing the number of individuals referred for special education services.

A single-subject-multiple-baseline-across-behaviors design was used to examine the effects of using Systematic and Engaging Early Literacy (SEEL) instruction to help Tier 3 kindergarten students learn to read CVC words. Four students designated as Tier 3 by their teachers participated in the study. They were grouped into two dyads and received SEEL instruction focusing on specific word reading targets for approximately 20 minutes four days per week over a seven-week time period. The instruction included meaningful, interactive activities and incorporated high levels of play, multiple exposures to the target, explicit instruction, and student-teacher conversational exchanges. Baseline assessment data were collected prior to the application of the intervention for each of the targets and assessment data continued to be collected after each intervention session. All students learned to read the target words and three of the students generalized their learning to other targets. A moderate to large effect size of 0.54 was obtained using Cohen's r value. The need for adequate exposure to targets and time to practice was highlighted, along with the value of revisiting targets and addressing individual student's needs when working in small groups.

Research suggests a compelling correlation between teacher behavior and effective learning environments (Sutherland & Morgan, 2003; Brophy & Good, 1986). Focusing on the evidence-based teaching skill of offering behavior-specific praise (BSP), the researcher worked with 3 elementary-level general educators in a tiered model of instruction, commonly known as response to intervention (RtI). Although RtI commonly provides targeted instructional support to students, this study, a systematic replication of Myers, Simonsen and Sugai (2011), used the RtI framework to provide professional development to teachers. The researcher also tracked the behavior of 3 students, identified by the teachers as having behavioral difficulties, who became the focus of each teacher's BSP. Results showed rapid and somewhat sustained increases in rates of BSP following the Tier 2 and 3 interventions (video self-monitoring and peer coaching), but not following the Tier 1 intervention (schoolwide in-service training). Averages for all 3 students' on-task behavior increased with increased teacher BSP. Implications for educators, administrators, and researchers are discussed.

This study evaluated the effectiveness of the Systematic and Engaging Early Literacy (SEEL) intervention method to improve consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC) reading in four students receiving Tier 3 services. The SEEL intervention method was also combined with the use of digital books on an iPad to investigate the effects of using technology in reading intervention sessions. Previous research indicates effectiveness for the foundational principles of SEEL, which include instruction in engaging, meaningful contexts that provide frequent and intense opportunities to practice. This research involved 4 kindergarten students who qualified for Tier 3 services based on their performance on an index of difficulty in early literacy skills. The study contrasted trained with untrained literacy targets of comparable difficulty and was conducted as a single-subject multiple-baseline-across-behaviors design. Intervention was delivered three times a week for 15-20 minutes, depending on the engagement of the participants. An analysis of the results showed improvement in three out of four participants in their reading ability of the target CVC words. It gave mixed results as to the effects of using technology in combination with the reading intervention. The analysis also looked at student engagement during both the hands-on manipulation of the materials and the reading and writing tasks performed on the iPad. It found that the engagement between these two parts of each session was similar; if a student had poor engagement for the SEEL intervention, he or she also had poor engagement for the iPad portion, and vice versa. This study provides further insight into the efficacy of SEEL and the use of technology; it also provides suggestions for future research in the area of reading intervention.

Educators are attempting to eliminate the disproportionate representation of culturally and linguistically diverse students in special education through initiatives such as Response to Intervention (RtI). Prior to the implementation of such initiatives, existing research relevant to this population must be critically reviewed and expanded. A synthesis of the available literature can provide significant insight into the type of data necessary to make informed decisions involving English language learners (ELL) at Tier I of an RtI model. In forming the theoretical foundation for this research, cognitive deficits associated with language-based disabilities and principles of cognitive load theory were examined. The study is an investigation of the following research question: Is the effectiveness of the bilingual English as a Second Language (ESL) model significantly altered under certain conditions? The research question was addressed through testing moderator effects using hierarchical linear regression. Initial English proficiency and initial Spanish proficiency were examined as moderating variables of the relationship between ESL model type and Kindergarten academic achievement. Academic achievement was defined as student learning growth on the Florida Assessment for Reading Instruction (FAIR) and student outcome scores on the Comprehensive English Language Learning Assessment (CELLA) Listening/Speaking and Reading constructs. Results supported: a) the relationship between initial English proficiency and FAIR growth, CELLA Listening/Speaking, and CELLA Reading, b) the relationship between initial Spanish proficiency and FAIR growth and CELLA Listening/Speaking, c) the relationship between type of ESL model and FAIR growth, CELLA Listening/Speaking, and CELLA iii Reading, d) the additional effect of the interaction of initial Spanish language proficiency with ESL model type to alter FAIR learning growth over time, and e) the additional effect of the interaction of initial English language proficiency with ESL model type to alter CELLA Listening/Speaking scores. Overall, this research supports the hypothesis that initial language proficiency can significantly alter the effectiveness of a bilingual ESL model. Recommendations for future research in this area include longitudinal studies using a similar hierarchical regression design with moderators in order to contextualize positive student outcomes.

Studien syftade till att bidra med kunskap kring hur materialet BRAVKOD för engelska påverkade avkodningsförmågan hos elever som uppvisade svårigheter i engelska och hade läs- och skrivsvårigheter/dyslexi. Studien genomfördes som en interventionsstudie i RtI-modellens lager 3. Träningen bestod av tio tillfällen med läsning av listor med ord från BRAVKOD för engelska. En jämförelse av för- och eftertest visade att BRAVKOD för engelska hade positiv effekt på avkodningsförmågan.