Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The retention and availability of water in the soil are controlled by soil structure and its temporal variation is associated with the weather and the crops needs. Water also controls the aeration and soil penetration resistance, factors that are directly linked to root growth. The overall objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of management systems and soil compaction levels on soil physical properties to define the conditions that favor the retention, storage and availability of water to plants while maintaining aeration and soil resistance favorable to root growth. To meet these goals an experiment was set up in the experimental station of the Soils Department-UFSM. The area was under fallow and in 2002 year it was incorporated into the crop production under no-tillage. The treatments were: notillage (NT) no-tillage with compaction (NTC), subsoiling (Sub), chiseling (ESC) and conventional tillage (CT). The design was a randomized block design with four replications. Undisturbed soil samples were collected in the soil layers 0.0 to 0.05, 0.05 to 0.10 0.10 0,15; 0.15 to 0.20; 0.20 to 0.30, 0.30 to 0.40 and 0.40 to 0.50 m to determine the bulk density (BD), pore distribution, air permeability (Ka), saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) and the water retention curve. For the same layers, soil moisture (UV) was monitored continuously down to the layer of 0.30 m, using an automated TDR. In the other layers readings were taken weekly with a manual TDR. The penetration resistance (Rp) was determined at six points across the plant rows, under eight conditions of soil moisture. The maize parameters evaluated were the emergency, dry mass, root distribution at physiological maturity and yield. The NTC had a higher BD and lower total porosity (Pt) and macropores (Mac) down to 0.40 m depth. The ESC, Sub and the CT reduced the BD and increased Pt. The Ksat and Kl had little influence of the treatments, but showed positive correlation with Pt and negatively with Mac and Ds. The main benefit of tillage is the reduction of its resistance to penetration and improved soil aeration which allows for better root growth. No-tillage did not store more water for plants in relation to conventional tillage, subsoiling and chiseling. Soil compaction increased the water retention in densiest layer, but reduced the plant's ability to exploit the soil, by inhibiting root growth and reduce soil aeration. The compacted soil reached in less time and kept for longer time restrictive values of soil penetration resistance and air permeability. The dry matter production and grain yield of maize was not affected by managements and compaction levels, although some plant growth factors were outside the appropriate range indicated by the least limiting water range. / A retenção e a disponibilidade de água no solo são controladas pela sua estrutura e a sua variação temporal está associada às condições meteorológicas e à necessidade das culturas. A água também controla a aeração e a resistência do solo à penetração, que são fatores diretamente ligados ao crescimento do sistema radicular. O objetivo geral desse estudo foi avaliar o efeito de sistemas de manejo do solo e níveis de compactação sobre as suas propriedades físicas e definir as condições que possam favorecer a retenção, o armazenamento e a disponibilidade de água às plantas, mantendo a aeração e a resistência do solo favorável ao crescimento radicular. Para atender estes objetivos instalou-se um experimento na área experimental do Departamento de Solos da UFSM. A área utilizada estava sob pouso e, a partir de 2002, foi incorporada ao sistema produtivo, sob sistema de plantio direto. Os tratamentos estudados foram: plantio direto (PD); plantio direto com compactação adicional (PDc); escarificação profunda (Sub); escarificação superficial (Esc) e preparo convencional (PC). O delineamento foi em blocos ao acaso com quatro repetições. Amostras de solo com estrutura preservada foram coletadas nas camadas de 0,0 a 0,05; 0,05 a 0,10; 0,10 a 0,15; 0,15 a 0,20; 0,20 a 0,30; 0,30 a 0,40 e 0,40 a 0,50 m, para determinar a densidade (Ds), distribuição de poros, permeabilidade ao ar (Ka), condutividade hidráulica saturada (Ksat) e a curva de retenção de água. Nestas mesmas camadas, a umidade do solo (Uv) foi monitorada continuamente até a camada de 0,30 m, utilizando-se um TDR automatizado. Nas demais camadas as leituras foram feitas semanalmente com um TDR manual. A resistência do solo à penetração (Rp) foi determinada em seis pontos transversalmente às linhas de semeadura, sob oito condições de umidade do solo. Na cultura do milho avaliou-se a emergência, a massa seca, a distribuição radicular na maturação fisiológica e a produtividade. O PDc apresentou maior Ds e menor porosidade total (Pt) e macroporos (Mac) até 0,40 m de profundidade. A Esc, Sub e o PC reduziram a Ds e aumentaram a Pt. A Ksat e a Kl tiveram pouca influência dos tratamentos, mas apresentaram correlação positiva com Pt e Mac e negativa com Ds. O principal beneficio da mobilização do solo é a redução da sua resistência à penetração e a melhoria na aeração do solo, o que permite um melhor crescimento das raízes. O plantio direto não armazenou maior quantidade de água para as plantas em relação ao preparo convencional e a escarificação. A compactação do solo aumentou a retenção de água na camada mais adensada, mas reduziu a capacidade da planta explorar o solo, por dificultar o crescimento radicular e reduzir a aeração do solo. O solo compactado atingiu em menos tempo e manteve por mais tempo valores de resistência à penetração e de permeabilidade ao ar, considerados restritivos. A produção de massa seca e de grãos do milho não foi afetada pelos manejos e níveis de compactação, mesmo que alguns fatores de crescimento da planta estivessem fora da faixa adequada indicada pelo intervalo hídrico ótimo.

Le maintien de la croissance foliaire en situation de déficit hydrique résulte du maintien de l´absorption racinaire et de la production de biomasse au niveau foliaire. Pour optimiser les deux processus, la plante ajuste la croissance de ses organes, et la répartition de la biomasse produite, entre les différents organes (root/shoot ratio) ou au sein de chaque organe (surface foliaire spécifique, longueur racinaire spécifique). Les principaux objectifs de ce travail de thèse étaient (i) d´évaluer l´impact des modifications de répartition de biomasse sur le maintien de la croissance foliaire en situation de déficit hydrique, (ii) de relier la réponse de la croissance d´un génotype aux caractéristiques de son habitat d´origine, and (iii) d´identifier les régions du génome responsables de la variation des croissances foliaires et racinaires en situation de déficit hydrique. Différent types de populations d´Arabidopsis thaliana ont été utilisés, une population de lignées recombinantes, ainsi que différents groupes d´accessions collectées dans des environnements naturels contrastés. Une analyse des relations allométriques entre les variables foliaires et racinaires en conditions de culture optimales puis en situation de déficit hydrique a permis de mettre en évidence le rôle clé de la surface foliaire spécifique dans l´amélioration de la tolérance au déficit hydrique. Une caractérisation détaillée du climat des régions dans lesquelles les accessions avaient été collectées a permis de faire le lien entre la tolérance accrue de certains génotypes et la faible balance climatique dans laquelle ils évoluaient. Enfin, en utilisant ces génotypes, une analyse de génétique quantitative (combinant recherche de QTL et génétique d´association) a été menée. Les régions génomiques controllant les croissances foliaires et racinaires étaient très liées, en particulier en situation hydrique optimale, mais le calcul de variables utilisant la croissance de la plante comme cofacteur a permis d´identifier des régions spécifiques de la croissance racinaire, dont une a été confirmée en utilisant des lignées quasi isogéniques. En situation de contrainte hydrique, les déterminants génétiques des croissances foliaires et racinaires étaient moins liés, et plusieurs régions très fortement associées spécifiquement aux variations de croissance racinaire ou foliaire ont été détectées. Des régions associées au maintien de la croissance foliaire en situation de déficit hydrique ont pu être mises en évidence, et la précision des études de génétique d´association a permis de réveler la présence de gènes d´intéret dans ces régions. / Growth maintenance under water deficit mainly results from the maintenance of water uptake at the root level,and assimilates production by leaves. To optimize both processes, plant need to adjust organ growth and biomassallocation patterns between roots and shoots (root/shoot ratio), but also within the organs, through specific leaf areaand specific root length variations. The main objectives of this study were (i) to evaluate the impact of growth andbiomass allocation patterns modifications on growth maintenance under drought conditions, (ii) to rely the genotypicresponses to water deficit conditions and the climatic features of the natural environment in which they evolved, and(iii) to identify the key genetic regions responsible for shoot and root growth variation in response to water deficitconditions. We used different sets of genotypes, a population of recombinant inbred lines, and different sets ofaccessions of Arabidopsis thaliana, collected in a wide range of environments. An analysis of the allometricrelationships between shoot and root growth related variables under both well watered and water deficit conditionsallowed to highlight the importance of specific leaf area plasticity to maintain plant growth under water deficit. Adetailed climatic characterization of the natural habitats of the accessions studied, combined to the evaluation ofgrowth response to water deficit in these accessions allowed connecting low climatic water balance to better toleranceto water deficit conditions in specific regions, suggesting that this climatic feature could have shaped the evolution ofgenotypes in certain regions. Finally, using these two sets of genotypes, joint linkage and linkage disequilibriumanalysis were performed on growth related traits under well watered and water deficit conditions. Some genetic regionsinvolved in the control of root and shoot related traits were strongly coupled, especially in well watered experiments,but we managed to identify root specific regions using calculated variables that takes global plant growth as a cofactor.Under water deficit, the regions controlling root and shoot growth were less associated, and very strong QTL weredetected, specifically associated to one or the other part. Genomic regions associated to growth response to waterdeficit were also detected, and the accuracy of association mapping enabled to identify target genes that could be playa role in growth maintenance under drought.

As substâncias húmicas (SH) podem alterar o crescimento das plantas bem como estimular a absorção de nutrientes. A ureia é o fertilizante nitrogenado mais utilizado na agricultura, porém, apresenta baixa eficiência de uso. Sabe-se que as substâncias húmicas podem aumentar a eficiência de uso da ureia por meio de efeito bioestimulante no crescimento radicular. Somado a isso, as SH atuam nas bombas de próton das raízes estimulando a absorção de nitrogênio e também alteram a dinâmica de hidrólise e mineralização do N-ureia. O objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar se as SH extraídas de turfa, associadas ou não ao N-ureia, alteram as transformações do N-ureia no solo, assim como o crescimento radicular e da parte aérea no desenvolvimento inicial da cana-planta. Nesse sentido, foram instalados dois experimentos em casa de vegetação, um com a presença de plantas para aferir parâmetros morfológicos e nutricionais e outro, sem plantas, para verificar a dinâmica de hidrólise e mineralização do N-ureia. Os experimentos foram planejados em delineamento experimental inteiramente casualizado com 16 tratamentos e cinco repetições, correspondendo a um esquema fatorial completo com quatro doses de nitrogênio na forma de ureia: 0; 100; 200 e 300 mg dm-3 e quatro doses de SH: 0; 13,8; 27,6; 41,7 mg dm-3 de C, e o experimento sem plantas utilizando o mesmo delineamento porém com 3 repetições e análises feitas em duplicatas. As substâncias húmicas aumentaram a hidrólise da ureia elevando a concentração de NH4+ no solo. O processo de nitrificação da ureia foi reduzido na presença das substâncias húmicas. As aplicações isoladas de N e SHs estimularam o crescimento radicular e da parte aérea da cana-de-açúcar, bem como modificaram as características morfológicas das raízes e parte aérea da cana-planta. A associação dos produtos resultou em decréscimos no crescimento vegetal devido às altas concentrações de amônio causadas pela maior hidrólise da ureia e também atuaram na redução do acúmulo e teor de nitrogênio na planta. Tanto a ureia quanto as SHs se mostraram eficientes no estímulo do crescimento inicial da cana-de-açúcar, no entanto, devido às altas doses de N-ureia utilizadas, o possível efeito sinérgico dos produtos não foi verificado. / Humic substances (HS) can alter plant growth and stimulate the absorption of nutrients. Urea is the most widely used nitrogen fertilizer in agriculture, however, has low use efficiency. It is known that humic substances can increase the efficiency of urea through bio-stimulant effect on root growth. Added to this, the SH proton pumps operate in the roots stimulating the uptake of nitrogen and also alter the dynamics of urea\'s hydrolysis and mineralization. The aim of this study was to verify whether the HS extracted from peat, associated or not with N-urea, alter the dynamics of transformation of urea-N in the soil and the growth of roots and shoots in the cane-plant cropcycle. In this direction, two experiments were carried out in a greenhouse, with the presence of plants to assess morphological and nutritional parameters and one without plants, to verify the dynamics of hydrolysis and mineralization of N-urea. The experiments were designed in a completely randomized design with 16 treatments and five replications, corresponding to a full factorial design with four rates of nitrogen as urea: 0, 100, 200 and 300 mg dm-3 and four rates of HS: 0, 13.8, 27.6, 41.7 mg dm-3 C, and experiment without plants using the same design but with three replications and analyzes performed in duplicates. The humic substances increased hydrolysis of urea by raising the concentration of NH4+ in soil. The nitrification of urea was reduced in the presence of humic substances. Individual applications of N and SHs stimulated root and shoot of sugar cane growth and modified the morphological characteristics of roots and shoots in the crop cycle of the cane-plant. The association of the product resulted in decreases in plant growth due to high ammonium concentrations caused by increased hydrolysis of urea and also reduced accumulation and nitrogen content in the plant. Both urea and the SHs were effective in stimulating early growth of sugar cane , however , due to high doses of N-urea used, the synergistic effect of the products has not been verified.

La pectine, un composant de la matrice de la paroi primaire, joue un rôle dans le contrôle de la porosité de la paroi, l’élongation et l’adhésion cellulaire et est un facteur important dans le développement de la plante. Homogalacturonane (HG), le polymère pectique le plus abondant, est sécrété sous forme méthylestérifiée et ne porte donc peu ou pas de charges négatives. La déméthylestérification d’HG par des pectines méthylestérases (PMEs) expose ensuite des charges négatives et a des conséquences importantes sur les propriétés mécaniques de la paroi, affectant des processus physiologiques et développementaux comme l’ouverture des stomates, l’initiation d’organes et la croissance cellulaire anisotropique. De multiples PME existent (chez Arabidopsis thaliana) qui peuvent être inhibées par des « PME inhibitors » (PMEIs) endogènes. L’HG déméthylestérifiée peut former des liaisons Ca²⁺-pectate qui peuvent rigidifier la paroi, mais des études récentes montrent que la déméthylestérification de HG peut également promouvoir le relâchement de la paroi et l’expansion cellulaire à travers un mécanisme inconnu. Dans ma thèse j’ai adressé ce paradoxe en étudiant le lien entre le métabolisme des pectines, le pH et l’extensibilité de la paroi. À cette fin j’ai développé et utilisé des outils génétiques et pharmacologiques pour la manipulation in vivo de l’activité PME. J’ai généré des lignées permettant la surexpression inductible de deux PMEIs différents, mais qui malheureusement s’avéraient non fonctionnelles. J’ai produit PMEI3 dans une levure ce qui m’a permis de montrer que la protéine a une activité inhibitrice pH-dépendante sur un large éventail de PMEs. Par ailleurs, j’ai utilisé et développé des senseurs ratiométriques pour la mesure du pH à la surface de la cellule. En dehors des senseurs existants, j’ai aussi essayé d’adresser les mêmes biosenseurs à la paroi. À l’aide de ces outils, j’ai ensuite étudié l’impact de la modification de l’activité PME sur le pH et la croissance cellulaire. J’ai pu observer qu’un inhibiteur chimique de la PME, l’(-)-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) entraînait une augmentation du pH apoplastique (pHApo) dans la racine, et ceci indépendamment de la H⁺-ATPase ; une inhibition de la croissance et une perte de l’anisotropie des cellules. Par ailleurs, un traitement avec PMEI3 ralentissait la croissance et un apport de PME entraînait une réduction du pHApo et une augmentation de la croissance. Enfin, une induction de 24h de PMEI5 causait une réduction du pHApo, ce qui est en accord avec l’activation compensatoire d’autres PMEs suite à une signalisation liée eux brassinostéroide accrue décrit précédemment. En conclusion, nos résultats suggèrent que la démethylesterification des HG crée domaines anioniques qui peuvent séquestrer des protons ce qui pourrait activer localement des protéines qui stimulent le relâchement de la paroi avec un pH optimum acide entraînant une augmentation de la vitesse de croissance cellulaire. / Pectin, a matrix component in the primary cell wall, plays a role in controlling cell wall porosity, cell elongation and cell adhesion and constitutes an important factor in plant development. The demethylesterification of homogalacturonan (HG), the most abundant pectic polymer, has vast consequences on the mechanical properties of the cell wall, and affects developmental processes such as stomata opening, organ initiation and anisotropic cell growth. HG is selectively demethylesterified in muro by pectin methylesterases (PME), which in turn can be inhibited by endogenous PME inhibitor proteins (PMEIs). Demethylesterified HG is thought to form Ca²⁺-pectate complexes, which contribute to wall stiffening, but recent evidence suggest that it can also promote cell wall loosening and expansion, through a so far unknown mechanism. In this study I addressed this paradox by investigating the link between pectin metabolism, cell wall pH and extensibility. To this end I developed and used genetic and pharmacological tools for the in vivo manipulation of PME activity. I generated inducible overexpression lines for two distinct PMEIs, which unfortunately were not functional. I also produced PMEI3 from Arabidopsis in a yeast and showed that the protein displayed an inhibiting activity on a broad range of PMEs. In addition, I developed and used tools to monitor the cell surface pH. In addition to using existing genetically-encoded ratiometric apoplastic pH sensors, I also tried to generate similar sensors targeted to the cell wall. Using these tools I then studied the impact of changes in pectin methylesterification on the cell wall pH and cell expansion. I discovered that a chemical inhibitor of PME, (-)-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), promoted an increase in apoplastic pH (pHApo) in root cells, independently from the inhibition of the H⁺-ATPase, and triggered root growth inhibition and abnormal cell shape. Exogenous PMEI3 application also inhibited root growth. In addition, PME application caused a decrease in pHApo and enhanced root growth. Interestingly, long-term induction of PMEI5 could reduce pHApo, consistent with the previously described activation of brassinosteroid signaling causing a compensatory increase in PME activity. Together, my study provides evidence that HG demethylesterification leads to a decrease in pHApo and an increase in cell growth in the Arabidopsis root. Our results support the view that the negatively charged pectate can sequester protons and thus may contribute to the activation of cell wall loosening proteins and cell growth.

Auxin is phytohormone that regulates several developmental processes and environmental responses. One of the most well-described outcome of the auxin signalling pathway is regulation of gene transcription. Aux/IAA proteins play an important role in this process, acting as transcriptional repressors. Recent studies revealed that several root growth responses are too rapid to be explained by changes in the level of transcription. The correlation between the amount of Aux/IAAs and the root growth rate suggests that these proteins might be involved in root growth regulation, especially during rapid growth responses that are not associated with transcriptional reprogramming. This work is focused on one of the 29 Arabidopsis Aux/IAA proteins - the IAA17/AXR3 protein. First, we produced stable transgenic lines of Arabidopsis thaliana expressing different combinations of fluorescently labelled AXR3-1 proteins and/or fused to subcellular localization tags under the control of different tissue-specific promoters, in order to characterize the subcellular localization of the studied protein. Subsequent visualization by confocal microscopy methods confirmed information about the role of IAA17/AXR3 protein in root growth responses, its involvement in auxin signalling, and gravitropism. Next, we showed that the...

Soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr.) has become one of the main agricultural grain crops produced in the United States. Soybean production continues to increase in high-yield environments throughout the U.S. New innovations are required to sustain gains in soybean yield potential. Field experiments were conducted at the Delta Research and Extension Center in Stoneville, MS in 2014 and 2015 to evaluate soybean aboveground biomass and grain yield response to supplemental N fertilization in a high-yielding environment on two soil textures commonly cropped to soybean in Mississippi. Greenhouse studies were conducted in 2016 at the Delta Research and Extension Center in Stoneville, MS to evaluate the influence of supplemental N fertilization on nodule formation and belowground biomass of soybean on two soil textures commonly cropped to soybean in Mississippi.

Following wildfires, plant materials are direct-seeded to limit erosion and annual weed invasion. Seedlings often fail to establish because selected plant materials are not always well adapted to local soil moisture and temperature conditions. In an effort to help improve plant materials selection and to evaluate sites potential revegetation, we have worked toward developing methodology to predict germination and root growth based on site specific soil moisture and temperature conditions. First, we characterized the seedbed environment of 24 sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) steppe sites throughout the Intermountain West to determine the wet-thermal time of five temperature ranges relevant to germination response and thermal-time model accuracy (Chapter 1). Second, we predicted potential germination for 31 plant materials at those same sites (Chapter 2). Third, in preparation to predict root growth at multiple sites, we characterized the drying patterns and the associated plant-available water for in the seedling root zone across nine woodland (Juniperus spp. and Piñus spp.) sites (Chapter 3). For all of these studies, we determined the effects of tree reduction and tree infilling phase at time of tree reduction. Our key findings are that seedbeds generally sum most wet-thermal time at temperature ranges where the germination rates fit thermal accumulation models quite well (R2 ≥ 0.7). The majority of plant materials summed enough wet-thermal time for a potential germination at most sites during the fall, early spring, and late spring. Soil drying primarily occurs from the soil surface downward. Drying rates and Plant available water associated with the first drying event increased with increasing soil depth. Root zone (1-30 cm) plant-available water increased before and decreased after the first spring drying event with increasing soil depth. Tree removal with increasing pretreatment tree infilling phase generally added progress toward germination, plant available water, and wet-thermal time in the seedbed and root zones of the sagebrush steppe in the Great Basin. Because soil moisture and temperature does not appear to be limiting for potential germination, combining germination and root growth models to create a more comprehensive model may allow for a more robust prediction for seedling survival. For either root growth or combined germination and root growth models, plant available water and wet-thermal time before the first spring drying period hold the most potential for successfully predicting seedling survival.

Increased water- and fertilizer-use-efficiency in containerized crop production, via reduced water loss, enhances crop-available nutrients while reducing non-point source agrichemical contributions in accordance with regulatory standards. Previous studies detailed nutrient leaching patterns throughout crop production seasons, leaving little known about water and dissolved nutrient (solute) movement through soilless substrates during irrigation. The following experiments evaluated fundamental water and solute transport principles through pine-bark based substrates. 1) Ilex crenata Thunb. 'Bennett's Compactum' were grown in 2.7 L containers. Tensiometers detected wetting front (WF) movement throughout the substrate during irrigation. 2) Tracer solution (containing NO3-, PO43- and K+) and deionized water (DI) were applied to substrate-filled columns to characterize tracer breakthrough under saturated and unsaturated conditions. 3) Controlled-release fertilizer (CRF) was topdressed (surface-applied), incorporated (throughout substrate), dibbled (center of substrate) or not applied to fallow substrate, irrigated with DI and leachate analyzed to determine nutrient concentrations throughout irrigation. Tensiometers revealed that seasonal root growth affected substrate pre-irrigation moisture distribution. Wetting fronts channeled through the substrate before becoming thoroughly wetted. Tracer breakthrough occurred with less effluent volume under unsaturated conditions. Breakthrough of NO3- and PO43- was relatively conservative, though 37% of K+ was retained by the substrate. Leachate concentrations for topdressed and incorporated CRF peaked early (first 50mL effluent) before diminishing with continued leaching. Leachate concentrations for dibbled CRF initially increased (first 150mL leachate), plateaued and then diminished. These results show the relative rapidity which water and solutes move through pine-bark during irrigation and demonstrate methods for future research on within-irrigation solute transport. / Master of Science

Urbanisation is characterised by mass migration of people to urban areas and conversion of land from rural to urban land uses. Changes in population dynamics have led to half the world’s population living in urban areas; in developed countries, urban dwellers account for three-quarters of the total population. Though populations have shifted from rural to urban areas, people continue to rely on their environment, and trees in particular, for tangible and intangible benefits alike. A great deal of factual and anecdotal knowledge supports the role of trees for ecological, social, and economic well-being. In spite of this, during urbanisation, previously vegetated land is converted to housing, roads, or utility corridors, all of which are necessary to support growing populations. This thesis investigates tree growth in these modified urban landscapes, in particular, the effects of pavements on urban trees. Pavements are truly pervasive, covering more than half of all land in highly developed urban areas. Their durability and strength are of great importance to transportation, but large-scale soil sealing is not without consequence. Pavements affect the hydrologic cycle, soil and air temperature, and nutrient cycling. Because of their effect on the surrounding environment, pavements inherently affect remnant or planted trees. They are believed to negatively affect tree growth and survival, thereby compromising the ecological, social, and economic benefits otherwise derived from the urban forest. In recent times, porous pavements have been increasingly installed in favour of impervious pavements. Porous pavements are perceived to be an environmentally-sound alternative to standard impervious pavements. This thesis begins by reviewing the literature concerning porous pavement’s effect on underlying soil and urban vegetation, thus illustrating the scarcity of empirical data describing the effect of porous pavement on tree growth. A greater understanding of porous pavement’s impact on the surrounding environment is needed, if its installation is to continue. With this aim in mind, this thesis describes an experiment in Christchurch, New Zealand, which monitored the impacts of porous and impervious pavement on underlying soil conditions, and subsequent tree growth. The experiment comprised 50 Platanus orientalis trees planted in an augmented factorial design, which consisted of controls and four treatments. Trees were split evenly amongst plots, such that ten replicates existed per treatment. The pavement treatments measured 2.3m by 2.3m, and were based on the combination of pavement type (2 levels: porous, impervious) and pavement profile design (2 levels: +/- subbase compaction and gravel base). The resulting four treatments were impervious concrete pavement (IP), impervious concrete pavement with compacted subbase and gravel base (IP+), porous concrete pavement (PP), and porous concrete pavement with compacted subbase and gravel base (PP+). From December 2007 to March 2009, data were collected to determine the effect of these treatments on soil moisture, aeration, pH, and nutrient concentration. Final tree height, stem diameter, shoot and root biomass, and root distribution were also measured at the conclusion of the experiment. Results of this experiment indicated that the effects of pavement porosity on soil moisture and aeration were dynamic, varying with season and soil depth. Increased soil moisture beneath porous pavements resulted from rapid infiltration following precipitation. This decreased the duration of plant stress resulting from drought. Relative to bare soil, paved plots had consistently greater soil moisture, likely because pavements reduced evaporation. The inclusion of a gravel base in the profile design limited capillary upflow, which resulted in lower soil moisture under pavements designed with a gravel base. Soil aeration was significantly lower beneath pavements relative to unpaved plots. This is likely related to greater soil moisture beneath pavements. Finally, soil pH increased beneath pavements, in particular beneath porous pavements. Though all growth parameters increased for trees surrounded by porous, rather than impervious pavement, this occurred only in the absence of a compacted subgrade and gravel base. Evidently, the impact of the compacted subgrade superseded the impact of pavement porosity. Furthermore, root growth was relatively shallow beneath pavements, likely due to favourable soil moisture directly beneath pavements. This research highlights (i) the dramatic effect of pavements on underlying soil conditions; (ii) that pavements do not inherently limit tree growth; (iii) that porous pavements can conditionally improve tree growth; and (iv) that soil compaction limits potential benefits resulting from porous pavements.

This thesis investigates the abiotic control of carbon (C) and water vapour fluxes (FCO₂ and E, respectively) in a New Zealand Pinus radiata D. Don plantation and a nearby clearcut. It concentrates on the limitation of these fluxes imposed by growing season soil water deficit. This results from low precipitation (658 mm a⁻¹) in combination with a limited root zone water storage capacity of the very stony soil (> 30% by volume). The thesis analyses results from seven eddy covariance flux measurement campaigns between November 1994 and March 1996. The study site was located in Balmoral Forest, 100 km north-west of Christchurch (42° 52' S, 172° 45' E), in a (in November 1994) 8-year-old stand. One set of measurements was conducted in an adjacent clearcut. Ecosystem flux measurements were accompanied by separate measurements of ground fluxes and of the associated environmental variables. Flux analysis focussed on the underlying processes of assimilation (Ac), canopy stomatal conductance (Gc) and respiration (Reco), using biophysical models coupled to soil water balance and temperature subroutines. Aiming to link time inegrated net ecosystem C (NEP) to tree growth, sequestration in tree biomass (NPP) was quantified by regular measurements of stem diameter using allometric relationships. Average rates of FCO₂ and E were highest in spring (324 mmol m⁻² d⁻¹ and 207 mol m⁻² d⁻¹, respectively) when the abiotic environment was most favourable for Gc and Ac. During summer, fluxes were impeded by the depletion of available soil water (θ) and the co-occurrence of high air saturation deficit (D) and temperature (T) and were equal or smaller than during winter (FCO₂ = 46 mmol m⁻² d⁻¹ in summer and 115 mmol m⁻² d⁻¹ in winter; E = 57 and 47 mol m⁻² d⁻¹, respectively). With increasingly dry soil, fluxes and their associated ratios became predominantly regulated by D rather than quantum irradiance, and on particularly hot days the ecosystem was a net C source. Interannually, forest C and water fluxes increased strongly with rainfall, and the simultaneously reduced D and T. For two succeeding years, the second having 3 % more rain, modelled NEP was 515 and 716 g C m⁻² a⁻¹, Ac 1690 and 1841 g C m⁻² a⁻¹ and Reco 1175 and 1125 g C m⁻² a⁻¹. NEP / E increased in wetter (and cooler) years (1.3 and 1.5 g kg⁻¹), reflecting a relatively larger gain in NEP. Responding mainly to increased rainfall during commonly dry parts of the year (ie summer), and reflecting the otherwise benign maritime climate of New Zealand, NEP during the winter months could exceed NEP during the middle of the notional tree growing season. Annual Ac, NEP, and NPP were strongly linearly related. This relation did not hold during bi-weekly periods when the processes of intermediate C storage were influential. Separate knowledge of tree growth and C fluxes allowed quantification of autotrophic, and heterotrophic respiration (Rhet≈ 0.4 NEP), as well as fine-root turnover (≈0.2 NEP). The ratio of NEP and stem volume growth was conservative (0.24 t C m⁻³) and allows a direct connection to be made between ecosystem carbon fluxes and forest yield tables. In the absence of living roots, the clearcut flux measurements demonstrated the expected limitation of Rhet by soil temperature (Ts) and θ. However, an additional 'pumping effect' was discovered at the open site whereby turbulence increased CO₂ efflux considerably when the soil surface was wet. Accounting for the combined effects of Ts, θ and turbulence, annual Rhet at the clear-cut site (loss to the atmosphere) was »50 % of NEP (C sequestered from the atmosphere) in the nearby forest. Clearly, there is an important contribution of C fluxes during early stages of ecosystem development to the total C sequestered over the lifetime of a plantation.