Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Mount Rungwe ecosystem (MRE) has unique mountain resources. Its biological, hydrological, economic and cultural endowments offer many development opportunities for Tanzania. Since the 1970s, the MRE has experienced change in land use and means of acquiring livelihoods, calling for scientific investigation into the extent, nature, and magnitude of land use changes and their implications for communities’ livelihoods. The aim of the study was to investigate the major changes in land use, to identify the drivers responsible for these changes and to establish the interrelationship between land use change and communities’ livelihoods in order to suggest desirable management options towards improving rural livelihoods and the ecological integrity of MRE. A research design that integrates both qualitative and quantitative approaches was adopted. The fieldwork involved six villages representative of three ecological zones and 384 respondents were interviewed. Information on the past and present land uses, policies, institutions and processes that have influenced and are influencing land use change in the area was obtained through questionnaires, interviews, field observation, and analysis of documents. Satellite imagery of 1973, 1986, 1991 and 2010 were analysed for spatial and temporal statistics on land use and change. The findings indicate that MRE is experiencing land conversions from one land use category to the other especially in villages of the highland zone. Government policies on the use of and access to forests, agricultural land and energy have contributed to the past and current land use changes. Demographic, cultural, economic and natural factors singly or cumulatively have also induced changes in land use in MRE. Most of the changes in land use were noted between 1991 and 2010. At the district level there was a significant decrease in natural vegetation, particularly bushland and woodland, and an increase in cultivated land. Intensification of agricultural land use was more in the villages of the highland zone than in the middleland and lowland zones. Villages of the lowland zone showed a decline of cultivated land area, particularly in the tree crops category, and a constant or declining trend of the natural vegetation coverage – especially grasslands and woodlands. To reduce unplanned farm expansions into areas of natural vegetation, it is recommended that the Ministry of Agriculture should re-emphasise intercropping practices and provide extension services targeting crops such as potatoes and bananas which are now commercialised. This would be a step towards improving agricultural land productivity and addressing local food security. The ministry of Energy and Minerals could finance the ongoing tree planting efforts by local communities and enhance the use of more efficient charcoal stoves so as not only to protect the remaining forests but also as a way of diversifying the communities’ livelihoods. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Mount Rungwe ekosisteem (MRE) het 'n unieke berggebaseerde hulpbronbasis. Sy biologiese, hidrologiese, ekonomiese en kulturele erfenis bied vele ontwikkelingsgeleenthede vir Tanzanië. Sedert die 1970s het die MRE verandering in grondgebruik ervaar wat implikasies inhou vir bestaanswyses van sy bewoners. Daarom vereis die veranderingsverskynsel wetenskaplike ondersoek na die omvang en aard van grondgebruikveranderinge en die implikasies daarvan vir gemeenskappe se lewensbestaan. Die doel van die studie was om ondersoek in te stel na die belangrikste veranderinge in grondgebruik en om die drywers verantwoordelik vir hierdie veranderinge te identifiseer en die onderlinge verband tussen die verandering in grondgebruik en gemeenskappe se lewensbestaan te identifiseer. Daaruit word wenslike bestuursopsies duidelik vir die verbetering van landelike bestaansmoontlikhede en die handhawing van ekologiese integriteit van die MRE. 'n Navorsingsontwerp wat beide kwalitatiewe en kwantitatiewe benaderings integreer is gekies. Vir veldwerk is ses dorpe in drie ekologiese sones ondersoek en 384 respondente is ondervra. Inligting oor die grondgebruike, -veranderings, beleide, instellings en prosesse wat die gebied beïnvloed het, is verkry deur middel van vraelyste, onderhoude, veldwaarneming, en dokumentontleding. Satellietbeelde van 1973, 1986, 1991 en 2010 is ontleed vir ruimtelike en temporale patrone van grondgebruik en verandering. Die bevindinge dui daarop dat die MRE grondgebruik-omskakeling van verskillende kategorieë na ander in veral die hooglandsone ervaar. Regeringsbeleid oor die gebruik en toegang tot natuurlike woude, landbougrond en energiebronne het bygedra tot hierdie grondgebruike en hul veranderinge. Demografiese, kulturele, ekonomiese en omgewingsfaktore, enkel of kumulatief, het ook tot die veranderinge bygedra. Die meeste van die veranderinge in grondgebruik is tussen 1991 en 2010 aangeteken. Op distriksvlak het byvoorbeeld natuurlike plantegroei, veral bosveld en woud, beduidend oor die studietydperk afgeneem, terwyl die bewerkte grondoppervlak sterk toegeneem het. Intensivering van landbougrondgebruik was meer intens in die dorpe van die hooglandsone in vergelyking met die middelland en laer sones. Dorpe van die laer sone het weer 'n afname van bewerkte grond, veral boomagtige gewasse, en 'n konstante of dalende tendens van die natuurlike plantegroei ervaar – veral gras- en bosveld. Om ongewenste plaasuitbreidings na gebiede van natuurlike plantegroei te voorkom, beveel die studie aan dat die landbouministerie weer klem plaas op praktyk vir tussenverbouing van gewasse en voorligtingsdienste voorsien vir die verbouing van gekommersialiseerde gewasse soos aartappels en piesangs. Dit sou die verbetering van die landbou-produktiwiteit en die verhoging van plaaslike voedselsekuriteit in die hand werk. Die energieministerie behoort origens deurlopende boomplant-aksies deur plaaslike gemeenskappe te stimuleer deur verskaffing van finansies en moet die gebruik van meer doeltreffende houtskool stowe aanmoedig. Dit sal die oorblywende woude help beskerm en is ook 'n manier om die gemeenskappe se lewensonderhoudstelsels te diversifiseer en te verbeter.

by Ip Iam Chong. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1994. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 148-160). / LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES --- p.i / ACKNOWLEGEMENTS --- p.ii / ABSTRACT --- p.iii-v / Chapter CHAPTER 1. --- INTRODUCTION: INDUSTRIALIZATION AND FAMILY CHANGE1 --- p.1-15 / Chapter 1.1. --- JOIN THE WORLD OF CAPITALIST ECONOMY --- p.1 / Chapter 1.2. --- DIVERSIFICATION OF PEASANT ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES --- p.2 / Chapter 1.3. --- COASTAL CAPITALIST DEVELOPMENT --- p.5 / Chapter 1.4. --- WORKERS' STORIES --- p.9 / Chapter 1.5. --- METHODOLOGY --- p.13 / Chapter CHAPTER 2. --- INDUSTRIALIZATION AND FAMILY DYNAMICS --- p.16-35 / Chapter 2.1. --- TWO ARGUMENTS OF FAMILY AND INDUSTRIALIZATION --- p.16 / Chapter 2.1.1. --- """Breakdown"" Argument" --- p.17 / Chapter 2.1.2. --- """Family Strategy"" Argument" --- p.19 / Chapter 2.2. --- FAMILY AS COHERENT UNIT: A CRITIQUE --- p.23 / Chapter 2.2.1. --- Un-examined Assumption --- p.23 / Chapter 2.2.2. --- Individual Autonomy in Family --- p.26 / Chapter 2.2.3. --- A Site of Conflicts --- p.28 / Chapter 2.3. --- "GENDER, FAMILY AND INDUSTRIALIZATION" --- p.30 / Chapter 2.4. --- FRAMEWORK AND CONCEPTUALIZATION --- p.34 / Chapter CHAPTER 3. --- INFLUXES OF LABOUR AND CAPITAL --- p.36-51 / Chapter 3.1. --- EXPORT INDUSTRIALIZATION --- p.36 / Chapter 3.2. --- OPEN ECONOMIC POLICY --- p.37 / Chapter 3.3. --- INFLUXES OF CAPITAL THROUGH HONG KONG --- p.38 / Chapter 3.4. --- PEARL RIVER DELTA ZONE: REGAINS ITS LINKEAGES WITH CAPITALIST WORLD --- p.41 / Chapter 3.5. --- TAKEOFF OF DONGGUAN --- p.43 / Chapter 3.6. --- NEWLY DEVELOPED INDUSTRIAL TOWN: TOWN C --- p.45 / Chapter 3.7. --- "POOR MOUNTAINOUS REGION: DAWU COUNTY, YANGGANG VILLAGE" --- p.46 / Chapter 3.8. --- REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN EXPERIENCING ECONOMIC REFORM --- p.50 / Chapter CHAPTER 4 --- DECLINE OF PARENTAL CONTROL ON LABOUR ALLOCATION --- p.52-73 / Chapter 4.1. --- DIFFERENT POINTS OF DEPARTURE --- p.52 / Chapter 4.1.1. --- Male: Extension of Original Autonomy --- p.52 / Chapter - --- Independent Working Experience --- p.54 / Chapter - --- Decision-making Process --- p.58 / Chapter 4.1.2. --- Females: From Dependent to independent --- p.60 / Chapter - --- Autonomy and Peer Group --- p.62 / Chapter - --- Serious Disagreement --- p.65 / Chapter 4.2. --- INDIVIDUALS INTERESTS DOMINATED HOUSEHOLD --- p.69 / Chapter CHAPTER 5 --- REINFORCEMENT OF PARENTAL CONTROL ON WAGE FUND --- p.74-94 / Chapter 5.1. --- GENDER DIFFERENCES IN LABOUR MARKET --- p.74 / Chapter 5.1.1. --- Women: Steady Wage and Steady Remittances --- p.78 / Chapter 5.1.2. --- Men: Irregular Income --- p.80 / Chapter 5.2. --- GENDER DIFFERENCES IN RIGHTS TO HOUSEHOLD FUND --- p.85 / Chapter 5.2.1. --- Unequal Distribution of Rights --- p.86 / Chapter 5.2.2. --- Transfer Females' wages to Males --- p.88 / Chapter 5.2.3. --- Wage Contributions for Social Reproduction of Family --- p.89 / Chapter 5.3. --- HOUSEHOLD INTERESTS DOMINATED INDIVIDUALS --- p.91 / Chapter CHAPTER 6 --- BARGAIN AND COMPROMISE ON HOUSEHOLD REPRODUCTION --- p.95-122 / Chapter 6.1. --- HOUSEHOLD REPRODUCTION --- p.95 / Chapter 6.2. --- FAILURE OF ASSIMILATION --- p.96 / Chapter 6.2.1. --- """My home is not here!""" --- p.97 / Chapter 6.2.2. --- Split Labour Market --- p.98 / Chapter 6.2.3. --- Harsh Work and Danger --- p.100 / Chapter 6.2.4. --- Localistic Antagonism --- p.103 / Chapter 6.2.5. --- Distrust in Urban Facilities and Institutions --- p.104 / Chapter 6.3. --- LOCALISTIC CONNECTIONS --- p.107 / Chapter 6.3.1. --- Supportive Networks --- p.108 / Chapter 6.3.2. --- Temporary Work and Residence --- p.111 / Chapter 6.4. --- WITHOUT OPTION --- p.113 / Chapter 6.4.1. --- "Women: ""Decide after return home.""" --- p.114 / Chapter 6.4.2. --- "Men: ""Working near home is easier.""" --- p.118 / Chapter 6.5. --- NEGOTIATIONS WITHIN HOUSEHOLD --- p.121 / Chapter CHAPTER 7 --- CONCLUSION: HOUSEHOLD STRATEGIES VS INDIVIDUAL STRATEGIES --- p.123-144 / Chapter 7.1. --- REORGANIZATION AND DISORGANIZATION OF FAMILY --- p.123 / Chapter 7.2. --- THREE DIMENSIONS OF HOUSEHOLD ECONOMY --- p.124 / Chapter 7.2.1. --- Individual Strategy Dominated Family Strategy --- p.124 / Chapter 7.2.2. --- Family Strategy Dominated Individual Strategy --- p.126 / Chapter 7.2.3. --- Balance Between Family and Individual Strategy --- p.127 / Chapter 7.3. --- THE INSTITUTIONAL CONSTRAINS ON FAMILY STRATEGY --- p.129 / Chapter 7.4. --- "STRUCTURATION AS ""ENABLE AND CONSTRAIN""" --- p.130 / Chapter 7.4.1. --- Industrial Employment --- p.130 / Chapter 7.4.2. --- Household --- p.131 / Chapter 7.5. --- "RETHINKING ""HOUSEHOLD ECONOMY""" --- p.132 / Chapter 7.5.1. --- "Whose Strategies were ""Family Strategies""?" --- p.135 / Chapter 7.5.2. --- Family as Intersecting Point between Individual and Industrialization? --- p.138 / Chapter 7.6. --- CAPITALIST DEVELOPMENT AND FAMILY CHANGE --- p.139 / Chapter 7.7. --- LIMITATION --- p.145 / APPENDIX: Name List of Informants --- p.147 / BIBLIOGRAPHY --- p.148-160

Fan, Yi. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2009. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 79-82). / Abstract also in Chinese. / Chapter 1. --- Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter 2. --- Background --- p.6 / Chapter 2.1. --- Son Preference in China --- p.6 / Chapter 2.2. --- Unbalanced Sex Ratio in China --- p.9 / Chapter 3. --- Literature Review --- p.10 / Chapter 3.1. --- Reasons for Different Investment in Sons and Daughters --- p.11 / Chapter 3.2. --- The Mechanism by Which Child gender Affects Parental Time Allocation --- p.15 / Chapter 4. --- Empirical Strategy and Data Description --- p.21 / Chapter 4.1. --- Empirical Strategy --- p.21 / Chapter 4.2. --- Data Description --- p.26 / Chapter 5. --- Empirical Results --- p.30 / Chapter 5.1. --- OLS Estimation --- p.30 / Chapter 5.2. --- Instrumental-Variables Estimation --- p.34 / Chapter 5.3. --- Fixed-effects Estimation --- p.44 / Chapter 6. --- Conclusion --- p.53 / Figures and Tables --- p.55 / Appendices --- p.74 / Bibliography --- p.79

The ubiquitous and pervasive nature of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) fosters societies driven by knowledge rather than traditional capital and labour through the simplified socio-economic participation. No longer are individuals impacted by spatial and environmental conditions when conducting personal, community and even national obligations and duties. However, the effective use of ICT is governed by personal, interpersonal and environmental factors. Nowhere else is this impact more evident than in rural areas. Rural areas are plagued by a number of challenges which affect ICT use. Some of these challenges relate to the scarcity of income, education and infrastructure. A holistic investigation on the challenges experienced by rural areas was necessary. Based on the outcome of the investigation, rural areas were classified as resource-constrained environments. The study then set out to explore concepts that highlight the opportunities offered by ICT in rural areas and those that mitigate challenges posed by these environments on ICT use. The theoretical grounding of the concepts identified in the study firstly set out to understand and explain general ICT use, then extended this ICT use to rural areas. A conceptual model explaining challenges posed by resource constraints inherent in rural areas on ICT use was incepted. This conceptual model was empirically investigated for evaluation and validation purposes resulting in the final model of the study. The final model of the study facilitated the process of understanding and explaining the effective use of ICT in rural areas based on the inherent resource constraints in these environments. By mitigating the factors affecting ICT use in rural areas, the impact of effective ICT use can potentially be extended to resource-constrained environments, including rural areas. / School of Computing / M. Sc. (Computing)

Bibliography: leaves 453-490.

Ricefield based fish seed production (RBFSP) in irrigated spring (boro) ricefields after initial introductions by external promoters has spread among farmers in parts of Northwest Bangladesh. This approach to producing juvenile fish, rather than by specialised geographically clustered hatchery and nursery enterprises, has been recognised as a strategy for decentralised production that makes large high quality seed available locally and supports food fish production. RBFSP has been promoted by the international NGO CARE as part of a process to improve rice-based livelihoods of farming households using a farmer field school (FFS) approach in two consecutive projects between 1993 and 2005. The approach is technically simple and is based on the stocking of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) eggs and Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) broodfish in ricefields. As a new approach to farmer level fish seed production, its livelihood impacts on the farming households as well as associated actors; its adoption, adaptation and rejection process in farming households; and its cost-effectives for dissemination at farmer level were not well understood. This thesis mainly applies the concept of the sustainable livelihood approach (SLA) using tools and processes of the growing family of participatory research. A systems approach was used to ensure that the key stakeholders including households, community and extension organizations were included. The study was initiated with a well-being analysis of community households to identify poorer households before exploring impacts of RBFSP on poorer producing households (RF) compared to non-producing (NRF) households based on one-off and longitudinal surveys. Livelihoods impacts on other actors linked directly and indirectly with RBFSP were also investigated. The adoption process of RBFSP at the household level and the cost-effectiveness of its promotion were assessed. Impact studies at the household level showed that RF households were significantly larger and had lower levels of formal education than NRF. Adoption of RBFSP had improved practical skills and hence substantially improved human capital in RF households. RF households tended to have more of their ricefish plots located adjacent to their households. Poor and intermediate adopters had smaller riceplots than better-off households but higher seed production efficiencies (poor-315.1 kg fingerlings/ha; intermediate-419.1 kg fingerlings/ha) than better-off households (294.6 kg fingerlings/ha). In addition to direct consumption of large fingerlings, RF households restocked them for further growth in their household ponds in doing so increasing yields by 60%. Fish consumption increased substantially in RF households based on their own production reducing their dependency on purchase from markets. The year round longitudinal survey revealed that activities for RBFSP were compatible with their existing rice-based agriculture activities for household members including men, women and children. The relatively limited income from fingerling production improved cash flow in the low income months. Consumption of large size fingerlings from ricefields provided nutrient dense food in the ‘hungry gap’ months when supplies of wild fish were poor, smoothing consumption. Apart from RF households, RBFSP extended its livelihoods impacts to a wide range of actors in and around the seed producing community. Poor fry traders were found to be key actors in the spread and support of RBFSP. On average fry traders supplied fingerlings to 35 foodfish producers within a mean distance of 5 Km from producing households in a community where RBFSP was well established. The end users (foodfish producers) included households with their own ponds, ponds with multiple ownership and larger waterbodies leased by small groups. Locally available RFBSP juveniles were attractive to each of these groups, supplementing hatchery derived seed. A large number of complex socio-cultural and technical factors were related to household level adoption of RBFSP. The major factors included use of cash generated to prevent distress sales of rice; lack of requirement to use pesticide in ricefields; meeting the household consumption demand; capacity to restock fingerlings in ponds; lack of any negative effects on rice production; increased non-stocked fish production in riceplots; simplicity of the technology; ease of fish harvest from riceplots; increased ability to gift fingerlings/foodfish to relatives and neighbours; more efficient use of both riceplot and irrigation pumps. The most important reasons for households not attempting or quickly rejecting RBFSP were labour conflicts with other activities. However, lost access to the riceplots through changes in tenure was the most common cause of late rejection by households who had practiced RBFSP for several years after withdrawal of CARE support. Location of fish seed producing plots close to the homesteads facilitated household women to contribute to seed production activities through feeding and looking after fish. Women were able to decide and control resources generated from fingerling sales as well as choosing to gift fingerlings to their relatives. Informal transfer of fingerlings in this way stimulated spread of RBFSP. Decentralised fish seed production was promoted through FFS very cost effectively. The introduction of an improved strain of Nile tilapia (GIFT) broodfish greatly enhanced the returns from decentralised seed production based on common carp alone. High levels of secondary adoption improved benefits from promoting RBFSP. The major benefit derived from the improved returns to food fish farmers using locally produced seed. Higher levels of net present value (NPV) and benefit cost ratio (BCR) were achieved based on promotion of mixed-sex tilapia in RBFSP than mono-sex tilapia produced in a large scale central hatchery. Cost-effectiveness in terms of multiplier development impacts on ramification of secondary adopters and, income of fry traders and foodfish producers, RBFSP also showed better performance than a mono-sex tilapia hatchery.

The midlands was the first area occupied and farmed by white settlers. It became the agricultural heartland of colonial Natal. Its farmers became politically and economically powerful. Their success rested on the construction of a community. They formed a close-knit society in which family links and a sense of belonging were constantly reinforced. The community was closed to blacks. A keen sense of class was developed which made it difficult for outsiders to gain admission. In order to become a member, new immigrants could enroll in some of the many social institutions which were created. It was these institutions which served to integrate the community, to order and police it, and to define it. The community was composed of people who all owned land. A sense of belonging to this community was achieved in a number of ways. Families were nurtured, becoming exceptionally important as institutions through which wealth was passed. They were places of social interaction as well as transgenerational units which ensured a continuous presence in the area. Amongst the institutions which the settlers founded were schools, societies, volunteer regiments. agricultural organisations and sports clubs. The institutions were consciously modelled on their metropolitan counterparts. Settler masculinity was nurtured in the institutions. It prescribed male behaviour according to the values of a land-owning settler gentry. This masculinity was disseminated throughout the colony, becoming a key feature of the colonial gender order. A strong emphasis was placed on being tough and fit, on obedience and teamwork. These were values which gave sport major popularity within the colony and which fueled a militarism that had a bloody and brutal climax in the 1906 rebellion. The institutions gave men power and served as networks by which white male prestige and influence was sustained . Although women were formally excluded. they occupied a central position within the family and made a major contribution to the reproduction of the community. White boys and men found the demands of settler masculinity exacting. Nevertheless. apart from providing them with powerful places in the colonial order, its emphasis on male companionship and fit bodies produced a powerful camaraderie. On the other hand. It stigmatised men who did not fit the mould, enforcing conformity as it did so. Settler society was able to renew and reproduce itself largely through its own institutions outside the sphere of the state. The expansion of the state in the twentieth century threatened settler institutions though they were successfully defended. The midland community and its families were not as homogenous as they liked to pretend. They maintained a facade by excluding and silencing dissidents. This process was a necessary part of the creation of a myth which elevated old Natal families to positions of social status and prestige. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1996.

Crop production is widely promoted as a solution to food insecurity, but its real impact on household food security has not been measured in South Africa. Small-scale production is a common practice for many rural poor households of South Africa. While agriculture may play a major role in reducing food insecurity, agricultural growth alone cannot solve the problem of food insecurity at household level. South Africa is food secure at the national level, but available data suggest that between 58.5 and 73 percent of South African households experience food insecurity. This study set out to measure the impact of crop production on household food security among sampled households in two communal regions, Umbumbulu and Maphephetheni, of KwaZulu-Natal, to establish whether participation in food production improved household food security. Household surveys which explored the types of crops produced, food consumed, income obtained from crop sales and the food security situation, were carried out at Umbumbulu and Maphephetheni respectively (n = 200 and n = 68). The types of crops produced were investigated using crop production seasonality charts, while the household food security situation was measured using the Coping Strategy Index tool. The main findings of the study indicated that household gardens provided food for household members, but did not provide sufficient quantities to meet year-round consumption requirements. Most sampled households relied largely on purchased foods. More than 80% of the food consumed by households came from purchases, 4% and 13% came from own production in Umbumbulu and Maphephetheni respectively. Among the households surveyed, 58% and 89% were below the poverty line for Umbumbulu and Maphephetheni respectively. Umbumbulu and Maphephetheni’s largest household income contributions came from wages or salaries. Social grants were the second most important source of household income. As participation in crop production alleviated food shortages somewhat, its contribution to food security cannot be ignored. A study needs to be conducted to investigate whether participation in both farm/non farm activities reduces the number of households below the poverty line. Government should provide extension officers to monitor and evaluate the impact of gardens on household food security. To guide the design and implementation of commercial and home gardens, households need to develop clear and consistent policies, strategies, processes and procedures, and (a sound) monitoring and evaluation framework. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

Land degradation and soil nutrient depletion have become serious threats to agricultural productivity in sub-Saharan Africa. Soil fertility depletion in smallholder areas has been cited as the fundamental biophysical cause of declining per-capita food production in Africa. Manure application is a well established and known practice, but not effectively used among South African smallholders. This study investigated the practice, constraints and perceptions of improving soil quality through manure application through a case study of three smallholder farmer groups. Three groups from rural areas of KwaZulu-Natal (Mkhambatini, Mooi River and Richmond) were selected to participate in the study. Participatory methodologies were used to identify and clarify the study problem. Three participatory focus group discussions, one per area, were conducted with farmers at the study sites to discuss farming methods, experience and perceptions of manure use, manure management practices and constraints farmers experience with manure use. Force Field Analysis was used for each group to explore for forces against and in support for manure use. Random soil and manure samples were collected for laboratory analysis to determine fertility levels. Some farmers indicated that soil fertility was low. However, half the sample perceived the land to be productive to some extent. The study showed that 40 per cent of farmers reported improved soil fertility following the application of manure. Due to the limited availability of livestock manure, farmers prefer to use both livestock manure and commercial fertilisers. Furthermore, the study found that except for young farmers (20 per cent of the sample), farmers had not received formal training and very limited extension advice on composting and manure use and management. The study participants were aware of the consequences of declining soil fertility and were attempting to improve soil quality. However, low livestock numbers and poor management led to inadequate amounts of manure, and, limited access to information on manure and compost use. Unless better knowledge of optimal soil nutrient management practice is acquired by the farmers, soil fertility levels will continue to decline, further reducing production potential and rural household food security. Government needs to revisit extension support to meet the needs of smallholders and offer training on sound soil management, sustainable production methods, composting and livestock management. A handbook with graphic detail should be accompanied to provide smallholders with information and advice on how to manage soil fertility. / Thesis (M.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.

This study provides feedback from the Extension Officers and community garden members involved in community garden projects of the KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs, by investigating the contribution of community gardens to household food security. The investigation included interviews with 61 Extension Officers from the Bergville, Hlanganani, Eshowe, Vryheid and Mbumbulu districts and 106 community garden members from 31 community gardens in the Bergville and Hlanganani districts. It was found that the people involved in community gardens were older persons, with little or no education. Those involved in community gardens were unemployed and relied on pensions, remittances and selling handicrafts to purchase garden inputs. The average household dependency ratios were 4, 5 and 5, 5 persons per active household member in Hlanganani and Bergville, respectively. Community garden members were mostly females, but most community garden members’ households were male-headed. The community garden members indicated that the most important reason for producing vegetables was for household use. Extension Officers were not satisfied with the state of community gardens and the relationship between the regional and district offices. Community gardens do not reflect the effort put in by the Extension Officers. The Extension Officers want to be involved in determining research priorities and be regularly informed about research findings and policy changes made at the regional level. The Extension Officers would like to see all government departments working together towards the development of communities. Extension Officers believe that if the government departments pool their resources, they would be able to serve the communities better than when each department works alone on community garden projects in the same community. Despite the initial funding of community gardens by the KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs, there were many factors limiting production of vegetables in community gardens. The limiting factors included poor soil fertility; small garden plot sizes; low water availability; high start-up costs and poor management of the community garden finances. The community garden members were positive about the contribution of community gardens to their lives. The benefits were in the form of information about vegetable production, cropping practices and the availability of fresh vegetables that provided nutritious food and allowed them to buy other household requirements instead of vegetables. Community garden projects have a potential role to play in the lives of many rural people if the following concerns raised by the Extension Officers are addressed: the relationship between the offices at district level and the regional level improves; the establishment and maintenance of sound channels of communication between the district field staff and the regions; research support is received from the regions; and government departments work together. The KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs should not only focus on providing infrastructure for projects but should also ascertain that the proposed project achieves the objectives of both the community garden members and the Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs and that the beneficiaries are trained before the project is handed over. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.