Σκοπός της παρούσης διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι η διερεύνηση, μέσω παραμετρικών αναλύσεων, της συμπεριφοράς και απόδοσης ενός δεδομένου Θερμικού Ηλιακού Συστήματος (Θ.Η.Σ.) για την περιοχή της Πάτρας. Στα πλαίσια αυτά, στο πρώτο μέρος της εργασίας περιλαμβάνεται μία βιβλιογραφική έρευνα, η οποία καλύπτει εκτενώς θέματα όπως η ηλιακή ακτινοβολία, κατηγορίες – εφαρμογές και ανάλυση των κύριων συνιστωσών ολοκληρωμένων Θ.Η.Σ., καθώς επίσης και μεθόδους εξομοίωσης τους. Στο δεύτερο μέρος αναπτύσσεται πρόγραμμα υπολογιστή, το οποίο αφ’ ενός υπολογίζει την ηλιακή ακτινοβολία που προσπίπτει σε μία επιφάνεια στην περιοχή της Πάτρας, αφ’ ετέρου προσδιορίζει, μέσω δύο μεθόδων (αναλυτική και f-chart), τα μηνιαία και ετήσια ποσοστά κάλυψης του φορτίου ενός δεδομένου Θ.Η.Σ.. Τα αποτελέσματα των αναλύσεων αυτών εμφανίζονται στη συνέχεια σε σχετικά γραφήματα παρέχοντας διάφορα χρήσιμα συμπεράσματα. / This project includes bibliographic research related to solar thermal systems and a study of performance, via parametrical analysis, for a solar water heating system installed in a hotel unit located in the region of Patras.

The Thesis analyzes one of the spheres of alternative energy supply – the solar energy. The main objective of the Thesis is to determine the energy rates of the solar collector and its accumulative capacity. The Paper introduces a stand on the solar collector research which consists of a flat solar collector, heat accumulator and auxiliary equipment. The research object of the Thesis is a laboratory flat solar collector and its system. The Thesis analyses the constructions of the solar collector which is meant for water heating. For this purpose theoretical research has been made, and experimental tests have been performed in a confined room by using a simulator of solar radiation and blowing the solar collector at an average wind speed of 2 m/s. Tests on the energy characteristics of the solar collector have been performed by using transparent poly-carbon covering and the glass covering; without using transparent covering and changing the debit of the heat-carrier. The author has made the reliance of the solar collector and accumulative capacity on the in-flowing and out-flowing heat-carrier and differences of the environment temperatures by using different coverings and debits of the heat-carrier. The relation between the accumulative capacity of the solar collector and the dimension of the solar collector has been established.

Vapour pressure (interchangeably referred to as atmospheric humidity) and solar radiation data are, for different reasons, difficult data to obtain in South Africa. Relative humidity measuring instruments (from which vapour pressure values can be obtained) require constant maintenance , while solar radiation can only be measured electronically. Data from both of these variables are, however, required as inputs to the Penman-Monteith equation, which has become the internationally accepted reference for the estimation of potential evaporation. It is necessary, therefore, to produce estimates of vapour pressure and solar radiation over South Africa from more common surrogates, e.g. rainfall and temperature data. Several methods of estimating vapour pressure and solar radiation from the literature are reviewed in this dissertation. Considerably greater attention is focused on models of vapour pressure than solar radiation , as less literature exists on this subject. In general, the methods involved in estimating vapour pressure tend to be relatively rudimentary. The FAO 56 documentation advises using saturated vapour pressure at minimum air temperature as an estimate of vapour pressure, yet the implicit assumptions of using this approach can fail in many circumstances, particularly in the more arid regions . It was found that monthly vapour pressure at any given location in South Africa could be estimated from geographical (invariate) data alone. It was also found that the most influential factor affecting daily vapour pressure at a given location within a given time frame (less than one month) was "air masses". Air masses proved too complicated to model from surrogate data of temperature and rainfall , however, and were thus omitted from the final model. Daily values of vapour pressure and vapour pressure deficit were estimated by holding vapour pressure for a given month constant, but varying temperature on a daily basis It was found that this method produced acceptable results for both elements throughout South Africa. The need for estimating solar radiation has existed for considerably longer than for vapour pressure. Professions other than agriculture, principally architecture and civil engineering, have long required solar radiation data/values. For this reason the art of estimating solar radiation values is better established and more models were available in the literature. Several suitable and recently developed solar radiation models, which use surrogate data (temperature and rainfall) , were identified from the literature survey. These models were then applied in situ and the results were compared with observed values. It was found that the majority of models produced similar output to one another. However, the Liu and Scott (2001) model, which is an enhancement of the Bristow and Campbell (1984) model, was found to be the best available model of those tested, particularly in the more humid locations of South Africa . Verification analyses revealed that the Liu and Scott (2001) model could be used to interpolate solar radiation where a sparse network of solar radiation measuring stations exists, e.g. in the arid locations of South Africa . The structure of the Liu and Scott (2001) model , however, prevented it from being employed in a subsequent exercise on mapping solar radiation over South Africa . For this purpose, the Hunt et al . (1998) model was employed. The estimation of two elements , vapour pressure and solar radiation , was improved upon, and the Penman-Monteith equation can thus now be more confidently applied throughout South Africa. Of these two elements, it is vapour pressure , which, because of a paucity of research to date on the subject, lends itself to expansive research in the future . / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2004.

Magistro darbe analizuotos vakuuminių saulės kolektorių, skirtų vandeniui šildyti sistemos energetiniai parametrai, rodikliai ir konstrukcijos. Taip pat šiame darbe nagrinėjama vakuuminio saulės kolektoriaus energetinės charakteristikos. Darbą sudaro dvi dedamosios dalys: analitinė ir praktinė darbo dalys. Analitinėje dalyje apžvelgtos skirtingų tipų saulės kolektorių charakteristikos, saulės kolektorinių vandens šildymo sistemų veikimo principas ir panaudojimo galimybės. Trumpai apžvelgta perteklinės energijos panaudojimo galimybės ir saulės kolektorių sistemos projektavimo principas. Praktinėje darbo dalyje tirta saulės kolektorinė vandens šildymo sistema gamybinėmis sąlygomis. Atskleistas sistemos veikimo mechanizmas, ištirtas kolektorių našumas skirtingomis darbinėmis sąlygomis. Darbo pabaigoje suformuluotos atlikto tyrimo išvados. Pateiktos rekomendacijos tirtos saulės kolektorinės vandens šildymo sistemos administraciniam personalui. / Master's thesis analyses vacuum solar collectors for water heating system energy parameters, indicators and construction. Also vacuum solar collector system energy characteristics. The work consists of two component parts: the analytical and practical parts of the research. In the analytical part is an overview of the different types of solar collector performance, solar water heating systems operation and utilization. Short overview of surplus energy utilization possibilities and solar system design principle. In the practical part of the thesis is investigated solar collector water heating system under production conditions. Revealed mechanism of the system, investigated thermal performance under different operating conditions. In the end of research thesis conclusions are formulated. Recommendations were given for tested solar collector water heating system administrative personnel.

The housing estates boom was and is a result of the Southeast Asia economic growth after the economic crisis between 1997 and 1998. Housing estates, especially in the suburbs of Bangkok, are designed by considering only aesthetics and costs without considering the negative effects that might occur to the occupants and nature. These negative effects lead to the insufficiency energy crisis.Determining how to reduce the energy used and increase the living quality in the building type is the critical question for architects to answer. Redesigning the housing estate using sustainable design concepts, especially with a focus on the natural ventilation and shading device strategies, can lift up the occupants' living quality because such design can provide cross ventilation through the house and solar shading to reduce the heat gain in the house. Not only would such design improvements make houses more comfortable for inhabitants, they also would reduce the energy use.The methodologies of research start with spatial analyses to define the general character of this type of house, then the redesigning of a selected existing house is used to focus on natural ventilation and shading devices design in order to improve the occupants living quality and to reduce the energy used in the house. It is hoped that this project can be the first step for other architects to understand the logic of natural ventilation and shading control design strategies within the realm of sustainability. / Department of Architecture

The purpose of this study is to develop an improved human radiation exchange model for use by planners and researchers. Although applicable for all environments, emphasis will be on urban areas. All processes of radiation exchange between the human body surface and surrounding environments were investigated through human body area factors (effective radiation area factor, feff, and projected area factor, fp), existing human thermal exchange models and three-dimensional (3D) computer simulation models with collected microclimatic data. For new body area factors, a sample of standing contemporary Canadian adults in normal-weight (male: 31 persons, female: 40) and over-weight (male: 48, female: 20) body mass index (BMI) categories were analyzed. A 3D mean body model was created for each category. Only very small differences in feff and fp were found between genders and BMI categories. Differences in feff and fp values between this study and previous studies were very large, up to 0.101 and 0.173, respectively. Another common body posture, walking, was also studied for the normal-weight male and female BMI categories. 3D computer walking body models at four stride positions were created. The directionless fp values for walking posture had minor differences between genders and positions in a stride. However, the differences of mean directional fp values between azimuth angles were great enough (up to 0.072) to create important differences in modeled radiation receipt. When both standing and walking postures are considered, the mean feff value of standing (0.826) and walking (0.846), 0.836, could be used. However, fp values should be selected carefully because differences between directional and directionless fp values were large enough that they could influence the estimated level of human thermal sensation. A new human radiation exchange model was developed using the new body area factors and compared with five existing models and one method (Burt, COMFA, MENEX, OUT_SET* and RayMan models and the six-directional method) using collected microclimatic data observed in Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Most differences between models came from absorbed solar radiation, especially absorbed direct beam solar radiation because of differences in fp* (=fp×feff) and feff or some missing components (feff or view factors). The lowest differences between the new model and the RayMan model alter the net all-wave radiation estimate up to 29 Wm-2, which can be significant in the human thermal exchange model. For 3D computer estimation, a new human-urban radiation exchange simulation model was developed combining the new human radiation exchange model and improved urban area factors (i.e., albedos and view factors of sunny and shaded building, ground and vegetation surfaces). The results of the new computer model were compared with microclimatic data collected in Nanaimo, B.C., Canada and Changwon, Republic of Korea as well as with two other 3D computer simulation programs, RayMan Pro and ENVI-met 3.1. The differences between the collected data and the new model were very small. Their correlation was very strong, over 0.99 for total radiation. RayMan Pro and ENVI-met 3.1 programs had larger differences, and their correlations with measured data were weaker than the new model’s. Accurate meteorological and urban setting data should be obtained for better results. The new model will give planners and researchers a simple tool to estimate accurate radiation effects in complex urban areas. / Graduate

Solar cells is one of the cleanest and most environmentally friendly ways to produce electricity. Västerås city has invested in a number of solar systems in public buildings as a step to solve the energy issues of the future and contribute to a sustainable environment. The purpose of this project is to compare the real system yield from Västerås city´s solar plants with simulations. Produces the solar plants as expected or not, and if not, what might be the cause. Data were collected about the solar cell installations, by Mälarenergi Elnät and Västerås city. The real system yield was calculated and then the solar plants were simulated in PVGIS (Photovoltaic Geographical Information System) to obtain the theoretical yield. This project shows that most of Västerås city´s solar plants have a yield that is as expected according to the simulations or higher. However, there are some solar plants with a low or very low yield compared to the simulations. The yield varies considerably during the year. For those plants where the yield has been studied monthly, the real yield is higher in the second half of the year compared with the first half. The self-consumption varies greatly between the different solar plants, but generally it is high. Some solar plants have a very high self-consumption of 100 % and some have a very low of 30-40 %. Some solar plants have a higher yield than expected and it may depends to the fact that the installed power is a few percent higher than what the manufacturer states. The simulations might be unsure, because losses, solar radiation and weather may vary. The solar plants that have a low yield compared to the simulations may have a broken or disconnected component, shading and dirt may also affect. To have as high self-consumption as possible is an economically advantage, as long as the plant is not under-dimensioned because the goal is to produce electricity. There is no clear pattern showing which of the four PVGIS simulations is best matched to reality.

Objetivos: Determinar a dose eritematosa mínima (DEM) medida por exposição controlada à radiação ultravioleta-B (RUV-B), como limiar para dano solar agudo nos diversos fototipos, e medir a cor da pele constitucional pelo sistema colorimétrico CIELAB. Pacientes e Métodos: Um total de 194 voluntários, sadios, com idades acima de 18 anos, distribuídos em um mínimo de 30 participantes por fototipo. Todos foram classificados por fototipos segundo os critérios de Fitzpatrick. As regiões infra-axilar torácica e nádega foram irradiadas em 4 áreas de 1 cm2, assim como foi registrada a cor da pele desses locais pelo sistema CIELAB. Delineamento: Estudo transversal. Resultados: A média de idade dos participantes foi de 38 anos, sendo 68% do sexo feminino. A avaliação da associação entre as medidas das DEMs e dos valores colorimétricos da coordenada L*, mostrou uma correlação de Pearson negativa com r = -0,91 para um valor p<0,05. Para os valores das DEMs e os escores da classificação dos voluntários por fototipos, obteve-se correlação de Spearman (rs) de +0,95 para p<0,05 e, correlacionando os valores colorimétricos com os escores dos fototipos, encontrou-se em tórax um rs de -0,93 e em nádega -0,92 para um p < 0,05. Conclusões – Concluiu-se que: 1)- a mensuração dos valores colorimétricos da coordenada L* nas regiões infra-axilar torácica e nádega mostraram uma forte correlação com os valores das DEMs, sendo de menor poder invasivo e de maior praticidade para mensuração de sensibilidade à radiação ultravioleta; 2)- apesar de os escores de Fitzpatrick terem alta correlação com os valores das DEMs, mostraram superposição de valores nos fototipos adjacentes; 3)- o grau de associação das classes dos fototipos com a cor da pele permite dizer que a categoria numérica do fototipo aumenta à medida que a pele fica mais escura. / Objectives: Determine the minimal erythema dose (MED) measured by controlled exposure to UVB radiation (UVBR) as an acute photodamage threshold for different skin phototypes, and measure the constitutional skin color by means of the colorimetric system CIELAB. Patients and Methods: A total of 194 healthy individuals, over 18 years of age, were divided into groups with a minimum of 30 participants per phototype (Fitzpatrick critera). Four 1-cm² areas of the lateral trunk and buttocks were exposed to radiation and the color of the skin at these sites was registered by the CIELAB system. Design: Transversal study. Results: The average age of the participants out of whom 68% were females was 38 years. The assessment of the association of the MED values with the colorimetric values of the coordinate L* both on the thorax and on the buttocks showed a negative Pearson correlation coefficient (r) of - 0.91 for p<0.05. A Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient (r²) of +0.95 for p<0.05 was obtained for the MED values and the scores of the classification of the volunteers by phototypes, and rs of –0.93 on the thorax and rs of –0.92 on the buttocks for p<0.05 were found by correlating the colorimetric values with the scores of the phototypes. Conclusions – It was concluded that: 1) the colorimetric values of the coordinate L* showed a strong correlation with the DEM values, which could be a less invasive and more practical method for measuring the sensitivity to ultraviolet radiation; 2) although the Fitzpatrick’s scores have a high correlation with the MED values, they demonstrated the overlap of values in the adjoining phototypes; 3) the extent of association of the pthototype classes with the color of the skin allows us to say that the numerical category of the phototype increases as the skin gets darker.

This study presents a detailed evaluation of long-term climatic data obtained from the meteorological station at Mokré louky wetland by Třeboň. A method for evaluation of dependence of air temperature on precipitation cycle is proposed and applied. The data from Mokré louky are compared with data from other meteorological stations in Czech Republic as well as in Europe and surroundings. The obtained results confirm a strong dependency of solar radiation reaching the Earth surface and dependently also the air temperature on the precipitation cycle. They represent in this way a fresh point of view on reasons for climate change, where the climate change is considered to be caused by a gradual decrease of permanent vegetation and current global desertification of continents.

[pt] O potencial da energia solar para a geração de energia elétrica no mundo é sem dúvida o maior dos potenciais das fontes energéticas renováveis, com uma capacidade de produção de eletricidade estimada em 745,8 TWh por ano. Embora não seja responsável por uma parte significativa da matriz elétrica mundial, o crescimento do setor fotovoltaico no mundo é notável. A capacidade instalada mundial de centrais fotovoltaicas cresceu 39 por cento no ano 2013. Os mapas mundiais de radiação solar mostram que aqueles que mais investem em energia solar fotovoltaica não são necessariamente aqueles cujo território recebe a maior quantidade deste recurso. O Brasil, com um grande potencial solar, confirmado por diversos levantamentos, não é um dos principais produtores de eletricidade a partir de sistemas fotovoltaicos. Este setor no Brasil é ainda incipiente, porém, uma das estratégias do país para promover a implementação de sistemas fotovoltaicos é um mecanismo de net metering para mini e micro produtores. Diversos especialistas afirmam que esta estratégia poderia gerar um grande volume de empreendimentos em pequena e média escala nos próximos anos. Este trabalho fornece uma ferramenta de informação sobre a radiação solar no estado do Rio de Janeiro, conformada por mapas de radiação solar global e dados de anos meteorológicos típicos. Com base nos dados gerados, realizaram-se simulações para estimar a radiação solar incidente e a eletricidade produzida por painéis fotovoltaicos em diferentes configurações fixas e com rastreamento. Avaliaram-se os ganhos e perdas ocasionados por cada configuração em relação a configuração horizontal. / [en] Solar energy potential for electricity generation undoubtedly surmounts the potential of all the other renewable energy sources, with an estimated electricity production capacity of 745.8 TWh per year. Albeit solar energy does not account for a significant share of the world electricity matrix, the growth of the photovoltaic market in the world is remarkable: the installed PV capacity increased in 39 percent on 2013. Nevertheless, the world maps of solar radiation show that the countries that invest the most in solar photovoltaic energy are not necessarily the ones that receive the highest solar radiation. Brazil, with an important solar potential, confirmed by diverse assessments, is not one of the main producers of PV-generated electricity. The PV-market in Brazil is still immature, however, one of the strategies of the Government to promote the implementation of PV systems is a net metering mechanism for mini and micro producers. Different specialists claim that this strategy could generate a big volume of new endeavors in small and medium scale in the next years. This study provides information tools about solar radiation in Rio de Janeiro. It comprises maps of global solar radiation in horizontal surfaces and Typical Meteorological Year data sets. Simulations were performed based on the generated data to estimate the incident solar radiation and the electricity produced by PV systems in different fixed and tracking configurations. The gains and losses caused by each configuration with respect to the horizontal configuration were evaluated.