Reiseberichte gelten als „Urszenarien der abendländischen Literatur“ (Brenner, Peter J.: Artikel „Reiseliteratur“, in: Enzyklopädie der Neuzeit, Bd. 10, Sp. 1019–1926, hier Sp. 1019). Sie waren und sind Ausdruck des menschlichen Bedürfnisses, sich Erfahrungswissen über die Außen - welt und die Menschen, die in ihr leben, anzueignen. Doch nicht nur Gesandte und Gelehrte, Pilger oder Missionare wussten von fremden Welten jenseits des christlichen Europas zu berichten. Fernab elitärer Kreise waren es mitunter Männer aus dem „gemeinen Volk“, die als Söldner in Gefangenschaft gerieten und nach geglückter Heimkehr eine Beschreibung ihrer Beobachtungen und Erlebnisse anfertigen ließen.

A RS471/BR153 é uma importante rodovia de integração, pois atravessa o estado do RS diagonalmente (Noroeste – Sudeste). O trecho estudado nesta dissertação localiza-se entre os municípios de Herveiras e Vera Cruz, coincidente com descida do planalto até a região central do estado. Durante o detalhamento do projeto e na construção da obra foram encontrados diversos problemas geotécnicos, os quais são sucintamente descritos. O texto apresenta as condicionantes geotécnicas de três subtrechos: (a) planalto, composto de rochas ácidas de origem vulcânica e grau de fraturamento muito alto; (b) descida da serra, composto pelos derrames da formação Serra Geral (brechas ácidas e basálticas e derrames basálticos) e (c) planície, com a presença de rochas sedimentares e materiais coluvionares. Além disto, há uma região especial onde o traçado atravessa uma sela topográfica coincidente com uma falha regional, com cortes de cerca de 60 m de altura através de rochas ácidas, básicas e brechas vulcânicas. A dissertação apresenta estudos dos processos de quedas de blocos rochosos que têm ocorrido nos cortes da rodovia. Foi utilizado um procedimento que correlaciona as leituras obtidas com o martelo Schmidt (Esclerômetro) e o coeficiente de restituição normal (RN) das rochas em diversos locais. Utilizando estes dados experimentais, foram executadas simulações de queda de blocos em quatro seções transversais bastante distintas com o uso do programa RocFall. Para cada seção foram simulados cinco cenários: (a) a existência de alargamentos para construção de áreas de retenção de blocos, (b) inexistência destas áreas, (c) a existência de preenchimento de uma ou várias banquetas existentes nos taludes de corte, e (d) o abatimento da seção com eliminação das banquetas. Foram também simulados quatro tipos de elementos de proteção: barreiras de baixa altura em concreto, camadas de areia fofa, barreiras metálicas flexíveis e proteção superficial dos taludes. A existência de áreas de retenção de blocos mostrou ser uma ótima medida, com frequências de invasão de pista geralmente abaixo de 1%, podendo chegar a 6,5% em condições de grande acúmulo de material. O melhor desempenho foi obtido pela instalação de camadas de areia fofa, obtendo-se todas as frequências abaixo de 2%. O uso de barreiras rígidas de 81 cm de altura teve um bom desempenho para taludes de baixa altura, chegando a detenções de até 25% dos blocos em trajetória de invasão. As barreiras flexíveis e proteções superficiais geraram resultados satisfatórios, mas que podem ser melhorados com outras modulações e dimensões. / The RS471/BR153 is an important road of integration, that cross RS state diagonally (northwest - southeast). The segment studied on this dissertation is located between the towns of Vera Cruz and Herveiras, coincident with the descent way from the plateau to the central state region. During the design and during the road construction several geotechnical problems were faced, which are briefly described. The text presents the geotechnical constraints of 3 segments: (a) plateau, composed of acid rocks of volcanic origin and very high degree of fracturing, (b) hills of the mountain, made up of volcanic rocks of Serra Geral formation (acid and basaltic breccias, basaltic flows) and (c) the plain, with the presence of sedimentary rocks and colluvial materials. There is also a special region where the road crosses a topographic saddle which it coincides with a regional fault, with cuts of about 60 m high through acid and basic rocks and volcanic breccia. The dissertation presents studies of rock falls that have occurred in the road cuts. A procedure that correlates the readings obtained with the Schmidt hammer (rebound hammer) and the normal coefficient of restitution (RN) of the rocks was carried out for measures taken at several locations. With these experimental data, simulations of falling boulders in four very different cross sections were done using the program RocFall. For each section five situations were simulated: (a) enlargements for the construction of rockfall catchment areas (b) the absence of these areas, (c) the existence of accumulation in the benchs of the cuts, and (d) the reduction of the section with bench removal. Four types of elements of protection were tested: concrete low barriers, layers of sand, flexible metal barriers and slope surface protection. The existence of rockfall catchment areas was shown to be a very good measure with frequencies of track invasion usually below 1% reaching 6.5% on conditions of large material accumulation. The best performance was obtained by the installation of sand layers, with all frequencies below 2%. The use of rigid barriers of 81 cm high had a good performance for low-slope heights, reaching up to 25% block retention. The use of flexible barriers and surface protections also had a good performance. / La RS471/BR153 es una importante carretera de integración, atraviesa el estado de RS diagonalmente (Noroeste-Sureste). El tramo estudiado en esta disertación se localiza entre los municipios de Herveiras y Vera Cruz, y coincide con el descenso desde el altiplano hasta la región central del estado. Durante las etapas de detalle y construcción de la obra fueron encontrados diversos problemas geotécnicos que son brevemente descritos. El texto presenta los condicionantes geotécnicos de tres subtramos: (a) altiplano, compuesto por rocas ácidas de origen volcánico y grado de fracturamiento muy alto; (b) descenso de la sierra, compuesto por los derrames de la formación Serra Geral (brechas ácidas y basálticas e derrames basálticos) y (c) planicie, con rocas sedimentarias y materiales coluviales. Además, hay una región donde el trazado atraviesa una “silla” topográfica que coincide con una falla regional, con cortes de aproximadamente 60 m de altura a través de rocas ácidas, básicas y brechas volcánicas. La disertación presenta estudios de procesos de caídas de rocas que han ocurrido en algunos cortes. Fue utilizado un procedimiento que correlaciona las lecturas obtenidas con el martillo Schmidt (Esclerómetro) y el coeficiente de restitución normal (RN) de las rocas en diferentes lugares. Con estos datos experimentales, fueron ejecutadas simulaciones de caídas de rocas en cuatro secciones transversales bastante distintas usando el programa RocFall. En cada sección fueron simulados cinco escenarios: (a) existencia de sobreanchos para la construcción de áreas de retención de rocas, (b) inexistencia de estas áreas, (c) existencia de relleno en una o más gradas existentes en los taludes de corte, y (d) diminución de la pendiente de los taludes y eliminación de las gradas. También fueron simulados cuatro tipos de elementos de protección: barreras de baja altura en concreto, capas de arena suelta, barreras metálicas flexibles y protección superficial de los taludes. La existencia de áreas de retención de rocas mostro ser una excelente medida, con frecuencias de invasión de pista generalmente inferiores a 1%, pudiendo llegar a 6,5% en condiciones de gran acumulación de material. El mejor desempeño fue obtenido con la instalación de capas de arena suelta, con todas las frecuencias por debajo de 2%. El uso de barreras rígidas de 81 cm de altura tuvo un buen desempeño para taludes de baja altura, llegando a detenciones de hasta 25% de los bloques en trayectoria de invasión. Las barreras flexibles y protecciones superficiales generaron resultados satisfactorios, que podrían ser mejorados con otras modulaciones y dimensiones.

A RS471/BR153 é uma importante rodovia de integração, pois atravessa o estado do RS diagonalmente (Noroeste – Sudeste). O trecho estudado nesta dissertação localiza-se entre os municípios de Herveiras e Vera Cruz, coincidente com descida do planalto até a região central do estado. Durante o detalhamento do projeto e na construção da obra foram encontrados diversos problemas geotécnicos, os quais são sucintamente descritos. O texto apresenta as condicionantes geotécnicas de três subtrechos: (a) planalto, composto de rochas ácidas de origem vulcânica e grau de fraturamento muito alto; (b) descida da serra, composto pelos derrames da formação Serra Geral (brechas ácidas e basálticas e derrames basálticos) e (c) planície, com a presença de rochas sedimentares e materiais coluvionares. Além disto, há uma região especial onde o traçado atravessa uma sela topográfica coincidente com uma falha regional, com cortes de cerca de 60 m de altura através de rochas ácidas, básicas e brechas vulcânicas. A dissertação apresenta estudos dos processos de quedas de blocos rochosos que têm ocorrido nos cortes da rodovia. Foi utilizado um procedimento que correlaciona as leituras obtidas com o martelo Schmidt (Esclerômetro) e o coeficiente de restituição normal (RN) das rochas em diversos locais. Utilizando estes dados experimentais, foram executadas simulações de queda de blocos em quatro seções transversais bastante distintas com o uso do programa RocFall. Para cada seção foram simulados cinco cenários: (a) a existência de alargamentos para construção de áreas de retenção de blocos, (b) inexistência destas áreas, (c) a existência de preenchimento de uma ou várias banquetas existentes nos taludes de corte, e (d) o abatimento da seção com eliminação das banquetas. Foram também simulados quatro tipos de elementos de proteção: barreiras de baixa altura em concreto, camadas de areia fofa, barreiras metálicas flexíveis e proteção superficial dos taludes. A existência de áreas de retenção de blocos mostrou ser uma ótima medida, com frequências de invasão de pista geralmente abaixo de 1%, podendo chegar a 6,5% em condições de grande acúmulo de material. O melhor desempenho foi obtido pela instalação de camadas de areia fofa, obtendo-se todas as frequências abaixo de 2%. O uso de barreiras rígidas de 81 cm de altura teve um bom desempenho para taludes de baixa altura, chegando a detenções de até 25% dos blocos em trajetória de invasão. As barreiras flexíveis e proteções superficiais geraram resultados satisfatórios, mas que podem ser melhorados com outras modulações e dimensões. / The RS471/BR153 is an important road of integration, that cross RS state diagonally (northwest - southeast). The segment studied on this dissertation is located between the towns of Vera Cruz and Herveiras, coincident with the descent way from the plateau to the central state region. During the design and during the road construction several geotechnical problems were faced, which are briefly described. The text presents the geotechnical constraints of 3 segments: (a) plateau, composed of acid rocks of volcanic origin and very high degree of fracturing, (b) hills of the mountain, made up of volcanic rocks of Serra Geral formation (acid and basaltic breccias, basaltic flows) and (c) the plain, with the presence of sedimentary rocks and colluvial materials. There is also a special region where the road crosses a topographic saddle which it coincides with a regional fault, with cuts of about 60 m high through acid and basic rocks and volcanic breccia. The dissertation presents studies of rock falls that have occurred in the road cuts. A procedure that correlates the readings obtained with the Schmidt hammer (rebound hammer) and the normal coefficient of restitution (RN) of the rocks was carried out for measures taken at several locations. With these experimental data, simulations of falling boulders in four very different cross sections were done using the program RocFall. For each section five situations were simulated: (a) enlargements for the construction of rockfall catchment areas (b) the absence of these areas, (c) the existence of accumulation in the benchs of the cuts, and (d) the reduction of the section with bench removal. Four types of elements of protection were tested: concrete low barriers, layers of sand, flexible metal barriers and slope surface protection. The existence of rockfall catchment areas was shown to be a very good measure with frequencies of track invasion usually below 1% reaching 6.5% on conditions of large material accumulation. The best performance was obtained by the installation of sand layers, with all frequencies below 2%. The use of rigid barriers of 81 cm high had a good performance for low-slope heights, reaching up to 25% block retention. The use of flexible barriers and surface protections also had a good performance. / La RS471/BR153 es una importante carretera de integración, atraviesa el estado de RS diagonalmente (Noroeste-Sureste). El tramo estudiado en esta disertación se localiza entre los municipios de Herveiras y Vera Cruz, y coincide con el descenso desde el altiplano hasta la región central del estado. Durante las etapas de detalle y construcción de la obra fueron encontrados diversos problemas geotécnicos que son brevemente descritos. El texto presenta los condicionantes geotécnicos de tres subtramos: (a) altiplano, compuesto por rocas ácidas de origen volcánico y grado de fracturamiento muy alto; (b) descenso de la sierra, compuesto por los derrames de la formación Serra Geral (brechas ácidas y basálticas e derrames basálticos) y (c) planicie, con rocas sedimentarias y materiales coluviales. Además, hay una región donde el trazado atraviesa una “silla” topográfica que coincide con una falla regional, con cortes de aproximadamente 60 m de altura a través de rocas ácidas, básicas y brechas volcánicas. La disertación presenta estudios de procesos de caídas de rocas que han ocurrido en algunos cortes. Fue utilizado un procedimiento que correlaciona las lecturas obtenidas con el martillo Schmidt (Esclerómetro) y el coeficiente de restitución normal (RN) de las rocas en diferentes lugares. Con estos datos experimentales, fueron ejecutadas simulaciones de caídas de rocas en cuatro secciones transversales bastante distintas usando el programa RocFall. En cada sección fueron simulados cinco escenarios: (a) existencia de sobreanchos para la construcción de áreas de retención de rocas, (b) inexistencia de estas áreas, (c) existencia de relleno en una o más gradas existentes en los taludes de corte, y (d) diminución de la pendiente de los taludes y eliminación de las gradas. También fueron simulados cuatro tipos de elementos de protección: barreras de baja altura en concreto, capas de arena suelta, barreras metálicas flexibles y protección superficial de los taludes. La existencia de áreas de retención de rocas mostro ser una excelente medida, con frecuencias de invasión de pista generalmente inferiores a 1%, pudiendo llegar a 6,5% en condiciones de gran acumulación de material. El mejor desempeño fue obtenido con la instalación de capas de arena suelta, con todas las frecuencias por debajo de 2%. El uso de barreras rígidas de 81 cm de altura tuvo un buen desempeño para taludes de baja altura, llegando a detenciones de hasta 25% de los bloques en trayectoria de invasión. Las barreras flexibles y protecciones superficiales generaron resultados satisfactorios, que podrían ser mejorados con otras modulaciones y dimensiones.

This thesis is concerned with the study of parallel mixing of two dissimilar gases under compressible conditions in the confined environment. A number of numerical studies are reported in the literature for the compressible mixing of two streams of gases where (1) both the streams are of similar gases at the same temperatures, (2) both the streams are at different temperatures with similar gases, and (3) dissimilar gases are with nearly equal temperatures. The combination of dissimilar gases at large temperature difference, mixing under compressible conditions, as in the case of scramjet propulsion, has not been adequately addressed numerically. Also many of the earlier studies have used two dimensional numerical simulation and showed good match with the experimental results on mixing layers that are inherently three dimensional in nature. In the present study, both two-dimensional (2-d) and three dimensional (3-d) studies are reported and in particular the effect of side wall on the three dimensionality of the flow field is analyzed, and the reasons of the good match of two dimensional simulations with experimental results have been discussed. Both two dimensional and three dimensional model free simulations have been conducted for a flow configuration on which experimental results are available. In this flow configuration, the mixing duct has a rectangular cross section with height to width ratio of 0.5. In the upper part of the duct hydrogen gas at a temperature of 103 K is injected through a single manifold of two Ludweig tubes and in the lower part of the duct nitrogen gas at a temperature of 2436 K is supplied through an expansion tube, both the gases are at Mach numbers of 3.1 and 4.0 respectively. Measurements in the experiment are limited to wall pressures and heat flux. The choice of this experimental condition gives an opportunity to study the effect of large temperature difference on the mixing of two dissimilar gases with large molecular weights under compressible conditions. Both two dimensional and three dimensional model free simulations are carried out using higher order numerical scheme (4th order spatial and 2nd order temporal) to understand the structure and evolution of supersonic confined mixing layer of similar and dissimilar gases. Two dimensional simulations are carried out by both SPARK (finite difference method) and OpenFOAM (finite volume method based open source software that was specially picked out and put together), while 3D model free simulations are carried out by OpenFOAM. A fine grid structure with higher grid resolution near the walls and shear layer is chosen. The effect of forcing of fluctuations on the inlet velocity shows no appreciable change in the fully developed turbulent region of the flow. The flow variables are averaged after the attainment of statistical steady state established through monitoring the concentration of inert species introduced in the initial guess. The effect of side wall on the flow structure on the mixing layer is studied by comparing the simulation results with and without side wall. Two dimensional simulations show a good match for the growth rate of shear layer and experimental wall pressures. Three dimensional simulations without side wall shows 14% higher growth rate of shear layer than that of two dimensional simulations. The wall pressures predicted by these three dimensional simulations are also lower than that predicted using two dimensional simulations (6%) and experimental (9%) results in the downstream direction of the mixing duct. Three dimensionality of the flow is thought of as a cause for these differences. Simulations with the presence of side wall show that there is no remarkable difference of three dimensionality of the flow in terms of the variables and turbulence statistics compared to the case without side walls. However, the growth rate of shear layer and wall surface pressures matches well with that predicted using two dimensional simulations. It has been argued that this good match in shear layer growth rate occurs due to formation of oblique disturbances in presence of side walls that are considered responsible for the decrease in growth rate in 3-d mixing layers. The wall pressure match is argued to be good because of hindrance from side wall in the distribution of momentum in third direction results in higher wall pressure. The effect of dissimilar gases at large temperature difference on the growth rate reduction in compressible conditions is studied. Taking experimental conditions as baseline case, simulations are carried out for a range of convective Mach numbers. Simulations are also carried out for the same range of convective Mach numbers considering the mixing of similar gases at the same temperature. The normalized growth rates with incompressible counterpart for both the cases show that the dissimilar gas combination with large temperature difference shows higher growth rate. This result confirms earlier stability analysis that predicts increased growth rate for such cases. The growth rate reduction of a compressible mixing layer is argued to occur due to reduced pressure strain term in the Reynolds stress equation. This reduction also requires the pressure and density fluctuation correlation to be very near to unity. This holds good for a mixing layer formed between two similar gases at same temperature. For dissimilar gases at different temperatures this assumption does not hold well, and pressure-density correlation coefficient shows departure from unity. Further analysis of temperature density correlation factor, and temperature fluctuations shows that the changes in density occur predominantly due to temperature effects, than due to pressure effects. The mechanism of density variations is found to be different for similar and dissimilar gases, while for similar gases the density variations are due to pressure variations. For dissimilar gases density variation is also affected by temperature variations in addition to pressure variations. It has been observed that the traditional k-ε turbulence model within the RANS (Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes) framework fails to capture the growth rate reduction for compressible shear layers. The performance of k-ε turbulence model is tested for the mixing of dissimilar gases at large temperature difference. For the experimental test case the shear layer growth rate and wall pressures show good match with other model free simulations. Simulations are further carried out for a range of convective Mach numbers keeping the mixing gases and their temperatures same. It has been observed that a drop in the growth rate is well predicted by RANS simulations. Further, the compressibility option has been removed and it has been observed that for the density and temperature difference, even for incompressible case, the drop in growth rate exists. This behaviour shows that the decrease in growth rate is mainly due to the interaction of temperature and species mass fraction on density. Also it can be inferred that RANS with k-ε turbulence model is able to capture the compressible shear layer growth rate for dissimilar gases at high temperature difference. The mixing of heat and species is governed by the values of turbulent Prandtl and Schmidt numbers respectively. These numbers have been observed to vary for different flow conditions, while affecting the flow field considerable in the form of temperature and species distribution. Model free simulations are carried out on an incompressible convective Mach number mixing layer, and the results are compared with that of a compressible mixing layer to study the effect of compressibility on the values of turbulent Prandtl / Schmidt numbers. It has been observed that both turbulent Prandtl and Schmidt numbers show an almost constant value in the mixing layer region for incompressible case. While, for a compressible case, both turbulent Prandtl and Schmidt numbers show a continuous variation within the mixing layer. However, the turbulent Lewis number is observed to be near unity for both incompressible and compressible cases. The thesis is composed of 8 chapters. An introduction of the subject with critical and relevant literature survey is presented in chapter 1. Chapter 2 describes the mathematical formulation and assumptions along with solution methodology needed for the simulations. Chapter 3 deals with the two and three dimensional model free simulations of the non reacting mixing layer. The effect of the presence of side wall is studied in chapter 4. Chapter 5 deals with the effect of compressibility on the mixing of two dissimilar gases at largely different temperatures. The performance of k-ε turbulence model is checked for dissimilar gases in Chapter 6. Chapter 7 is concerned with the effect of compressibility on turbulent Prandtl and Schmidt numbers. Finally concluding remarks are presented in chapter 8. The main aim of this thesis is the exploration of parallel mixing of dissimilar gases under compressible conditions for both two and three dimensional cases. The outcome of the thesis is (a) a finding that the presence of sidewall in a mixing duct does not make flow field two dimensional, instead it causes the formation of oblique disturbances and the shear layer growth rate is reduced, (b) that it has been shown that the growth rates of dissimilar gases are affected far more by large temperature difference than by compressibility as in case of similar gases, (c) that the growth rates of compressible shear layers formed between dissimilar gases are better predicted using k-εturbulence model and (d) that for compressible mixing conditions the turbulent Prandtl and Schmidt numbers vary continuously in the mixing layer region necessitating the use of some kind of model instead of assuming constant values.

A RS471/BR153 é uma importante rodovia de integração, pois atravessa o estado do RS diagonalmente (Noroeste – Sudeste). O trecho estudado nesta dissertação localiza-se entre os municípios de Herveiras e Vera Cruz, coincidente com descida do planalto até a região central do estado. Durante o detalhamento do projeto e na construção da obra foram encontrados diversos problemas geotécnicos, os quais são sucintamente descritos. O texto apresenta as condicionantes geotécnicas de três subtrechos: (a) planalto, composto de rochas ácidas de origem vulcânica e grau de fraturamento muito alto; (b) descida da serra, composto pelos derrames da formação Serra Geral (brechas ácidas e basálticas e derrames basálticos) e (c) planície, com a presença de rochas sedimentares e materiais coluvionares. Além disto, há uma região especial onde o traçado atravessa uma sela topográfica coincidente com uma falha regional, com cortes de cerca de 60 m de altura através de rochas ácidas, básicas e brechas vulcânicas. A dissertação apresenta estudos dos processos de quedas de blocos rochosos que têm ocorrido nos cortes da rodovia. Foi utilizado um procedimento que correlaciona as leituras obtidas com o martelo Schmidt (Esclerômetro) e o coeficiente de restituição normal (RN) das rochas em diversos locais. Utilizando estes dados experimentais, foram executadas simulações de queda de blocos em quatro seções transversais bastante distintas com o uso do programa RocFall. Para cada seção foram simulados cinco cenários: (a) a existência de alargamentos para construção de áreas de retenção de blocos, (b) inexistência destas áreas, (c) a existência de preenchimento de uma ou várias banquetas existentes nos taludes de corte, e (d) o abatimento da seção com eliminação das banquetas. Foram também simulados quatro tipos de elementos de proteção: barreiras de baixa altura em concreto, camadas de areia fofa, barreiras metálicas flexíveis e proteção superficial dos taludes. A existência de áreas de retenção de blocos mostrou ser uma ótima medida, com frequências de invasão de pista geralmente abaixo de 1%, podendo chegar a 6,5% em condições de grande acúmulo de material. O melhor desempenho foi obtido pela instalação de camadas de areia fofa, obtendo-se todas as frequências abaixo de 2%. O uso de barreiras rígidas de 81 cm de altura teve um bom desempenho para taludes de baixa altura, chegando a detenções de até 25% dos blocos em trajetória de invasão. As barreiras flexíveis e proteções superficiais geraram resultados satisfatórios, mas que podem ser melhorados com outras modulações e dimensões. / The RS471/BR153 is an important road of integration, that cross RS state diagonally (northwest - southeast). The segment studied on this dissertation is located between the towns of Vera Cruz and Herveiras, coincident with the descent way from the plateau to the central state region. During the design and during the road construction several geotechnical problems were faced, which are briefly described. The text presents the geotechnical constraints of 3 segments: (a) plateau, composed of acid rocks of volcanic origin and very high degree of fracturing, (b) hills of the mountain, made up of volcanic rocks of Serra Geral formation (acid and basaltic breccias, basaltic flows) and (c) the plain, with the presence of sedimentary rocks and colluvial materials. There is also a special region where the road crosses a topographic saddle which it coincides with a regional fault, with cuts of about 60 m high through acid and basic rocks and volcanic breccia. The dissertation presents studies of rock falls that have occurred in the road cuts. A procedure that correlates the readings obtained with the Schmidt hammer (rebound hammer) and the normal coefficient of restitution (RN) of the rocks was carried out for measures taken at several locations. With these experimental data, simulations of falling boulders in four very different cross sections were done using the program RocFall. For each section five situations were simulated: (a) enlargements for the construction of rockfall catchment areas (b) the absence of these areas, (c) the existence of accumulation in the benchs of the cuts, and (d) the reduction of the section with bench removal. Four types of elements of protection were tested: concrete low barriers, layers of sand, flexible metal barriers and slope surface protection. The existence of rockfall catchment areas was shown to be a very good measure with frequencies of track invasion usually below 1% reaching 6.5% on conditions of large material accumulation. The best performance was obtained by the installation of sand layers, with all frequencies below 2%. The use of rigid barriers of 81 cm high had a good performance for low-slope heights, reaching up to 25% block retention. The use of flexible barriers and surface protections also had a good performance. / La RS471/BR153 es una importante carretera de integración, atraviesa el estado de RS diagonalmente (Noroeste-Sureste). El tramo estudiado en esta disertación se localiza entre los municipios de Herveiras y Vera Cruz, y coincide con el descenso desde el altiplano hasta la región central del estado. Durante las etapas de detalle y construcción de la obra fueron encontrados diversos problemas geotécnicos que son brevemente descritos. El texto presenta los condicionantes geotécnicos de tres subtramos: (a) altiplano, compuesto por rocas ácidas de origen volcánico y grado de fracturamiento muy alto; (b) descenso de la sierra, compuesto por los derrames de la formación Serra Geral (brechas ácidas y basálticas e derrames basálticos) y (c) planicie, con rocas sedimentarias y materiales coluviales. Además, hay una región donde el trazado atraviesa una “silla” topográfica que coincide con una falla regional, con cortes de aproximadamente 60 m de altura a través de rocas ácidas, básicas y brechas volcánicas. La disertación presenta estudios de procesos de caídas de rocas que han ocurrido en algunos cortes. Fue utilizado un procedimiento que correlaciona las lecturas obtenidas con el martillo Schmidt (Esclerómetro) y el coeficiente de restitución normal (RN) de las rocas en diferentes lugares. Con estos datos experimentales, fueron ejecutadas simulaciones de caídas de rocas en cuatro secciones transversales bastante distintas usando el programa RocFall. En cada sección fueron simulados cinco escenarios: (a) existencia de sobreanchos para la construcción de áreas de retención de rocas, (b) inexistencia de estas áreas, (c) existencia de relleno en una o más gradas existentes en los taludes de corte, y (d) diminución de la pendiente de los taludes y eliminación de las gradas. También fueron simulados cuatro tipos de elementos de protección: barreras de baja altura en concreto, capas de arena suelta, barreras metálicas flexibles y protección superficial de los taludes. La existencia de áreas de retención de rocas mostro ser una excelente medida, con frecuencias de invasión de pista generalmente inferiores a 1%, pudiendo llegar a 6,5% en condiciones de gran acumulación de material. El mejor desempeño fue obtenido con la instalación de capas de arena suelta, con todas las frecuencias por debajo de 2%. El uso de barreras rígidas de 81 cm de altura tuvo un buen desempeño para taludes de baja altura, llegando a detenciones de hasta 25% de los bloques en trayectoria de invasión. Las barreras flexibles y protecciones superficiales generaron resultados satisfactorios, que podrían ser mejorados con otras modulaciones y dimensiones.

Submitted by Etelvina Domingos (etelvina.domingos@ufpe.br) on 2015-03-10T17:09:30Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) HLAG.pdf: 1126552 bytes, checksum: 1e1ac46e79a77b1688e9cb1f88285609 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-03-10T17:09:30Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) HLAG.pdf: 1126552 bytes, checksum: 1e1ac46e79a77b1688e9cb1f88285609 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-01 / O objetivo desse trabalho é mostrar que os Top Intersection Numbers das Grassmannianas de retas G(2,n+2) satisfazem a relação de recorrência apresentada no artigo "Catalan Traffic at the Beach" e a conexão desses dois com os números de Catalan. Tudo isso será feito com a teoria das Derivações de Schubert e sua conexão com as Grassmannianas de retas.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-12T18:33:54Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 arquivo9589_1.pdf: 1126552 bytes, checksum: 1e1ac46e79a77b1688e9cb1f88285609 (MD5) license.txt: 1748 bytes, checksum: 8a4605be74aa9ea9d79846c1fba20a33 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012 / O objetivo desse trabalho é mostrar que os Top Intersection Numbers das Grassmannianas de retas G(2,n+2) satisfazem a relação de recorrência apresentada no artigo "Catalan Traffic at the Beach" e a conexão desses dois com os números de Catalan. Tudo isso será feito com a teoria das Derivações de Schubert e sua conexão com as Grassmannianas de retas

The thesis entitled “Copper-Catalyzed Novel Oxidative Transformations: Construction of Carbon-Hetero Bonds” is divided into two main sections. Section A deals with the utility of azide as a nitrogen source for C-N bond formation, which is further divided into 4 chapters, and section B presents decarboxylative radical coupling reaction for C-heteroatom bond formation which is further divided in to two chapters. Section A Chapter 1 describes an approach for the direct synthesis of nitrile from the corresponding alcohols using azide as a nitrogen source. Nitrile functionality is a versatile and ubiquitous which occurs in a variety of natural products. Nitrile functionality can be easily transformed into a variety of functional groups and products such as aldehydes, ketones, acids, amines, amides and nitrogen-containing heterocycles, such as tetrazoles and oxazoles. In this chapter a successful attempt for developing a novel methodology to oxidize benzylic and cinnamyl alcohols to their corresponding nitriles in excellent yields has been described. This strategy uses DDQ as an oxidant and TMSN3 as a source of nitrogen in the presence of a catalytic amount of Cu(ClO4)2·6H2O. A few representative examples are highlighted in Scheme 1.1 Scheme 1. Oxidative conversion of alcohols to nitriles Second chapter represents a protocol for the synthesis of 1,5-disubstituted tetrazoles from the corresponding secondary alcohols. Among heterocyles, tetrazole and its derivatives are important class of nitrogen containing molecules. Due to their well-known biological activities as well as vast applications in pharmaceuticals and material science, they are potential targets for synthetic organic chemists. Therefore, a simple and user-friendly method for the synthesis of tetrazole is desirable. In this chapter, a mild and convenient method to synthesize 1,5-disubstituted tetrazoles using easily accessible secondary alcohols by employing TMSN3 as a nitrogen source is developed. This reaction is performed in the presence of a catalytic amount of Cu(ClO4)2·6H2O using DDQ as an oxidant under ambient conditions (Scheme 2).2 Scheme 2. Oxidative conversion of secondary alcohols to tetrazoles Third chapter presents a method for synthesizing amides from their corresponding secondary alcohols. Amide functionality is a crucial backbone in peptide chemistry, it also serve as an important precursor or intermediate for variety of organic transformations. In this contention, a mild and convenient method to synthesize amides using easily accessible secondary alcohols by employing TMSN3 as a nitrogen source is developed. This reaction is performed in the presence of a catalytic amount of Cu(ClO4)2·6H2O using DDQ as an oxidant under ambient conditions (Scheme 3).3 Scheme 3. Oxidative conversion of secondary alcohols to amides Additionally, the application of this methodology has also been revealed for the synthesis azides directly from their alcohols. Some of the representative examples are shown in the Scheme 4.3 Scheme 4. Direct conversion of alcohols to their azides. Fourth chapter describes highly chemoselective Schmidt reaction. The classical Schmidt reaction involves the formation of new carbon-nitrogen bonds in a reaction of a carbon-centred electrophile with hydrazoic acid followed by loss of nitrogen, which usually occurs via a rearrangement. It is well known that under the Schmidt reaction conditions, ketones and carboxylic acids are converted into their corresponding amides and amines respectively, whereas aldehydes furnish a mixture of formanilides and nitriles. In this chapter, Schmidt reaction of aldehydes to obtain their nitriles without formation of the corresponding formanilide is presented (Scheme 5).4 It was also observed that aromatic ketones and acids functionalities were intact under the reaction condition, unlike the conventional Schmidt reaction. Scheme 5. Highly chemoselective Schmidt reaction Section B It is divided into two chapters, describes a copper catalyzed decarboxylative radical coupling for the synthesis of vinyl sulfones and nitroolefins (Scheme 6). Scheme 6. General strategy for the second part First chapter narrates a strategy for synthesizing nitroolefins from the α,β-unsaturated carboxylic acids. Nitroolefins represent a unique class of nitro compounds, which have multifaceted utility in organic synthesis. They possess antibacterial, rodent-repelling, and antitumor activities. They serve as important intermediates in organic synthesis. Nitroolefins also react with a variety of nucleophiles, and their electron-deficient character renders them as a powerful dienophiles in Diels-Alder reactions. In our attempt to use the decarboxylative strategy, this chapter describes a method for the nitrodecarboxylation of substituted cinnamic acid derivatives to their corresponding nitroolefins. This nitrodecarboxylation reaction is performed using catalytic amount of CuCl in the presence of air using TBN as a nitrating source (Scheme 7).5 Besides, the reaction provides a useful method for the synthesis of β,β-disubstituted nitroolefin derivatives which are generally difficult to access from other conventional methods. Scheme 7. Decarboxylative nitration Second chapter presents a new protocol for the synthesis of vinyl sulfones from the α,β-unsaturated carboxylic acid. Vinyl sulfones are versatile building blocks, which find their utility as Michael acceptors and used in cycloaddition reactions. This functional group has also been shown to potently inhibit a variety of enzymatic processes, and thus provides unique properties for drug design and medicinal chemistry. Vinyl sulfones are prominent in medicinal chemistry owing to their wide presence in pharmaceutically active molecules, such as enzyme inhibitors and biological activity. In this chapter, we report a method for the construction of C-S bonds via ligand promoted decarboxylative radical sulfonylation of ,-unsaturated carboxylic acids to synthesize vinyl sulfones using Cu catalysis (Scheme 8).6 This is the first report for this particular conversion. Scheme 8. Decarboxylative sulfonation

This work deals with the structural design of the Stirling engine beta modifications for increasing the thermal efficiency of the regenerator. This work is an attempt to propose a regenerator, or propose ways of working fluid through the heater and the heat exchanger to cool the chamber. All using different design elements. Furthermore, this work deals with stress analysis using computer software.

This thesis deals with the diagnosis of a residential building from the late nineteen twenties for the needs of reconstruction. The methods generally used in the diagnosis of structures are briefly described in the theoretical part. More deeply this section describes the methods that were used during this particular research. The practical part deals with the diagnosis of the object itself. The first section describes the layout of the villa, its design solution, its faults and defects detected during the inspection. The next section deals with evaluating the current state of construction materials. Static reports of several structural parts were calculated in the last section.