El objetivo del siguiente artículo es presentar un estudio sobre las vocales susurradas, y su gradual desaparición, en la lengua shuar. El estudio parte de la premisa de que las vocales susurradas desaparecen de la lengua shuar por la acomodación al sistema vocálico del español. Este estudio se fundamenta en la investigación realizada en 21 comunidades a lo largo del territorio shuar. Se examinan tres factores extralingüísticos: edad, localidad y grado del bilingüismo. La conclusión confirma que el contacto con el español juega un papel importante en la desaparición de las vocales susurradas porque la intensidad del contacto es el factor que más influye en su desuso gradual. / The objective of the following paper is to present a study about the voiceless vowels in Shuar and their decreasing vitality. The hypothesis of the study presumes that the voiceless vowels disappear due to the influence of Spanish vocalic system. The database for the research was collected in 21 Shuar communities. The study takes into account three extralinguistic factors: age, locality and grade of bilingualism. The conclusion confirms that the contact with Spanish plays an important role in the disappearance of the voiceless vowels as the intensity of contact with Spanish is the most influential factor in their gradual disuse.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Oregon, 2006. / Typescript. Includes vita and abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 157-178). Also available for download via the World Wide Web; free to University of Oregon users.

The Hygiene Hypothesis and Old Friends Hypothesis focus attention on the coevolutionary relationship between humans and pathogens, positing that reduced pathogen exposure in economically developed nations is responsible for immune dysregulation and associated increases in chronic inflammation, allergy, and autoimmunity. Despite progress in testing these ideas, few studies have examined these relationships among populations undergoing the transition from traditional to more market-based lifestyles. The present study tests relationships between economic development and social change, altered infectious disease exposure, and immune function among the Shuar forager-horticulturalists of Amazonian Ecuador, a population undergoing rapid economic change associated with increased market participation. Using stool samples to assess soil-transmitted helminth (STHs; parasitic intestinal worms) burden, dried blood spot measurement of the inflammatory marker C-reactive protein (CRP), and interviews to evaluate level of market integration (MI; the suite of social and cultural changes associated with rapid economic development) and disgust sensitivity, this dissertation tests the Hygiene and Old Friends Hypotheses. The first study tests relationships between STH exposure and MI, using geographic location in relation to the regional market center as a proxy for MI. This study documents lower rates of STHs in people living in more market integrated regions. The second study tests the coevolutionary role that STHs and other pathogens have played in shaping human psychology and behavior. Findings suggest that pathogen exposure has acted as a selective pressure, resulting in evolved disgust sensitivity toward pathogen related stimuli. This study provides evidence that disgust sensitivity is calibrated to local environments, acting to decrease STH exposure. The third study tests the role of STHs in immune function. CRP was positively related to age in uninfected individuals. No relationships existed for more traditionally living or infected individuals. These findings suggest that STH exposure may decrease the risk of developing chronic inflammation and associated diseases with advancing age. These studies provide support for the idea that STHs provide stimuli that decrease chronic inflammation, suggesting that altered intestinal microflora in developed nations may be partially responsible for the development of chronic inflammatory disorders like allergy and autoimmunity. This dissertation includes previously published and unpublished coauthored material.

xxi, 234 p. : ill. (some col.) A print copy of this thesis is available through the UO Libraries. Search the library catalog for the location and call number. / Life history theory examines the allocation of resources among competing demands, including growth, immune function, and reproduction. Immune function can itself be divided into innate, cell mediated, and humoral responses. For humans, factors like economic condition, disease exposure. and social milieu are all hypothesized to affect life history allocations. For the Shuar of Amazonian Ecuador these factors are rapidly changing as traditional subsistence hunting and horticulture give way to wage labor and Western medicine. This dissertation presents fieldwork conducted amongst the Shuar between 2005 and 2009. It is among the first studies to test for life history trade-offs between different branches of immunity and growth across market conditions. Shuar data include anthropometrics (n=1,547), biomarkers (n=163), and household compositions (n=292). Comparison samples include the Shiwiar of Ecuador (n=42), non-indigenous Ecuadorian colono children (n=570), the Tsimane of Bolivia (n=329), and the 2005-2006 U.S. NHANES (n=8,336). The dissertation finds significant differences between both populations and Shuar villages in growth and immunity. Increasing market integration is associated with poorer growth, but household factors mediate these changes. Adult males have positive effects on child growth in acculturated areas with wage labor and in distant areas where fishing and hunting remain important but not in intermediate areas. Children have consistent negative effects on one another's growth, suggesting competition for resources. Poorer growth is also associated with higher levels of immunoglobulin E (IgE), a humoral response to helminths. In contrast, C-reactive protein, an inflammatory marker, has a positive association with growth. This divergence between humoral and innate immunity is consistent with a lasting reallocation of immune resources towards a T H 2 response in helminth infected individuals. The age-profile of IgE also varies across market conditions: comparing the Shuar with samples from the U.S. and Bolivia, the age of peak IgE is correlated with the level of peak IgE in each population, providing some of the first evidence for a "peak shift" in immune response. Overall, these results support the hypothesis that local conditions lead to the adaptive "tuning" of trade-offs between branches of immunity and growth. This dissertation includes previously published and unpublished co-authored material. / Committee in charge: Lawrence Sugiyama, Chairperson, Anthropology; James Snodgrass, Member, Anthropology; Frances White, Member, Anthropology; John Orbell, Outside Member, Political Science

The human stress response has been shaped by natural selection to manage acute environmental challenges. While short-term activation of this response is imperative for survival, its chronic stimulation can lead to negative health consequences due to dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and its end product, the glucocorticoid cortisol. In fact, chronic psychosocial stress has been identified as an important pathway through which lifestyle alterations associated with market integration (MI; the degree of production for and consumption from a market-based economy) impact traditionally-living societies experiencing rapid cultural changes. Few studies, however, have systematically examined the relationships between MI and HPA axis activity. Moreover, limited research has examined how factors associated with MI influence children's perceptions of the shifting cultural milieu. The primary goal of this dissertation was to illuminate the dynamic features of the human stress response among the indigenous Shuar of Amazonian Ecuador with four objectives: 1) To examine HPA axis activity among the Shuar to address fundamental questions about the basic biological mechanisms of the human stress response; 2) To examine individual differences in HPA axis activity as shaped by age, sex, and body mass index (BMI); 3) To evaluate how factors associated with MI influence the HPA axis activity of Shuar children and adolescents; and 4) To utilize a conceptual model (cultural consonance) to better understand how Shuar youth perceive changes in the sociocultural environment. Results suggested that age was positively associated with cortisol levels, while age and sex moderated the relationship between BMI and the decline in cortisol across the day. Factors associated with MI did not directly affect the cortisol patterns of Shuar children and adolescents; however, age, sex, and BMI moderated these relationships. For example, Shuar youth experiencing greater exposure to MI displayed age-related increases in waking cortisol levels. Finally, Shuar children and adolescents with less exposure to MI demonstrated more incongruity with their locally-defined model of lifestyle success due to limited access to items identified as important for “a good life”. These studies illustrate the complexity of the human stress response in the context of culture change. This dissertation includes unpublished, co-authored materials. / 10000-01-01

Diss. Uppsala : Univ., 2003.

This research is about territory, mining conflicts and social movements in South East Ecuador. The Andean country with no large scale mining history is experiencing a recent expansion of large scale mining with growing levels of social conflict. Social movements have been questioning and contesting the forms being taken by the extractive economy as well as proposing an alternative pathway to development through the indigenous concept of sumak kawsay. The Socialist Government is pushing the nation’s extractive model forward to include large scale mining, motivated by the much needed revenues to diversify Ecuador’s oil based economy. El Pangui, my field site, is located on the foothills of the Cordillera del Cóndor, where a large copper deposit is proposed to be developed by a Chinese mining corporation. The Cordillera is an area of great biological diversity and home to the traditional territories of the Shuar, one of the largest indigenous ethnic groups in Ecuador. The years of colonization of ancestral lands and of border war with Peru, the establishment of parks-for-peace, small scale gold mining activity and an expanding agricultural frontier, together have formed a complex territorial mosaic that contribute in shaping the social and physical landscapes. Since 2005 a mining conflict has been unfolding and that can be considered yet another layer of territorial disputes and symbolic contestation in the regions´ history. My fieldwork was carried out from an engaged research and activist scholarship position. I used an ethnographic methodology to explore the bidirectional influences of territorial dynamics and the anti-mining struggle by looking at multi scalar impacts these have on people’s daily life, corporate social responsibility and environmental development debates. I also looked at the ways in which memories and meanings associated with past conflicts resonate in subsequent resource struggles to form a layering of conflicts. I was particularly interested in the less visible dimensions of environmental mobilisation embedded in the routines of daily life, as well as in the ways in which the memory and history of territorialisation and settlement influence social movement organizing. Theoretically, I propose a territorial approach to studying natural resource struggles and social movements that contest mining. This concept allowed me to examine the effects of the extractive projects on pre-existing territorial dynamics and the influence of these dynamics on the ways in which mining investments are contested.

Wälder sind lebenswichtige Nahrungs- und Einkommensquellen für ländliche Haushalte und dienen als Reserven in Krisenzeiten. Deshalb können Abholzung und Walddegradierung die Lebensbedingungen der waldabhängigen Gemeinschaften gefährden. Darüber hinaus ist Abholzung die zweitgrößte Ursache für Treibhausgasemissionen, Biodiversitätsverlust und Klimawandel. Der ländliche Raum bedarf einer besonderen Aufmerksamkeit, da er sehr anfällig für die Auswirkungen des Klimawandels ist. In diesem Zusammenhang ist REDD+ als eine günstige Alternative zur Verringerung des Klimawandels und zur Förderung einer nachhaltigen Entwicklung aus dem Rahmenübereinkommen der Vereinten Nationen über Klimaänderungen (englisch United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, UNFCCC) hervorgegangen. Allerdings sind die potenziellen positiven und negativen Auswirkungen von REDD+ noch relativ unbekannt. Das gilt ins besondere für indigene Völker und andere vom Wald abhängige Bevölkerungsgruppen in tropischen Regenwäldern. Die hier vorgestellte Forschung ist eine mehrschichtige Studie, die dazu beiträgt, mögliche Alternativen der REDD+ Implementierung aus einer Bottom-up-Perspektive zu erklären. Als Fallstudie wurde die Yasuní-Region im gleichnamigen ecuadorianischen Biosphärenreservat ausgewählt. Die Region ist Teil eines größeren REDD+ Projektes der Deutschen NRO Welthungerhilfe. Hier wurden die drei am weitesten verbreiteten ethnischen Gruppen ausgewählt, die in der Pufferzone des Yasuní-Nationalparks leben. Zwei Gemeinden von jeder Ethnie mit jeweils unterschiedlichen Entfernungen zu den Märkten wurden als Studiengruppen ausgewählt. Hierbei handelt sie sich um die indigenen Gruppen der Shuar und Kichwa sowie die Gruppe der Kolonisten (Mestizen). Der Mehrskalenansatz umfasst die Haushaltsebene, die Gemeindeebene sowie die regionale Landschaftsebene. Auf der Haushaltsebene wird eine Analyse der Einkommensgenerierung, die sich aus der Subsistenzwirtschaft und der Barmitteleinnahme zusammensetzt, vorgestellt. Zusammenfassend lässt sich feststellen, dass die Mehrheit der untersuchten Haushalte hohe Einnahmen von Ölfirmen erhalten, denen sie als ungelernte nicht-landwirtschaftliche Arbeitskräfte zur Verfügung stehen. Darüber hinaus bezieht ein Großteil der Haushalte staatliche Unterstützungen. Die Studie zeigt, dass die indigenen Völker trotzt der vergleichsweise hohen Einkünfte aus ihrer Arbeit im Ölsektor und externer Hilfen eine größere Abhängigkeit von Wald- und Umweltressourcen als die Kolonisten haben. Dieses hohe nicht-landwirtschaftliche Einkommen könnte - zumindest zeitweise - den Druck auf die Wälder reduzieren. Vor diesem Hintergrund ist REDD+ ein relativ schwacher finanzieller Anreiz für die untersuchten Haushalte. Dies gilt umso mehr, wenn man das Engagement in mehrjährigen REDD+ Projekten wie Wiederaufforstung, Waldüberwachung usw. betrachtet. Auf Gemeindeebene werden die Landkonfiguration und der institutionelle Rahmen für die Entscheidungsfindung gemeinsamer Ressourcen analysiert. In dieser Studie werden zwei Formen kommunaler Vereinbarungen vorgestellt: Common Property Management Regimes (CPMRs) und Kolonisten-Kooperativen. Als konzeptioneller Rahmen wird der theoretische Ansatz von Ostrom (1990) zur Governance of Common Pool Resources (CPR) verwendet. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass sich immer mehr indigene Landkonfigurationen denen der Mestizen angleichen. Hinterlassenschaften aus Agrarreformen und geltende rechtliche Rahmenbedingungen fördern die Privatisierung der bäuerlichen Betriebe in den Gemeindeländern und damit die Waldzersplitterung. Dieses wiederrum beeinflusst die traditionelle Ressourcennutzung. Auf Landschaftsebene werden eine historische und territoriale Konfiguration sowie Managementpläne für das Biosphärenreservat Yasuní vorgestellt. Darüber hinaus werden rechtliche Rahmenbedingungen für REDD+, Konsultations- und Beteiligungsmechanismen diskutiert. Ergebnisse der Datenanalyse zeigen, dass unsichere Landadministration sowie Titelrechte die REDD+-Implementierung behindern können. Des Weiteren kommt es zu einer Überlappung von indigenem Land mit Erdölblöcken und Naturschutzgebieten, wodurch es zu potentiellen Konflikten kommen kann. Darüber hinaus verringern inkonsistente Managementplänen und rechtliche Rahmenbedingungen die effektive Beteiligung und Entscheidungsfindung von indigenen Völkern und Kleinbauern. Schlussfolgerung der Analyse ist, dass es einer breiten und eingebetteten Landschaftsplanung der Yasuní Region bedarf. Das Livelihood Framework Konzept wurde häufig angewandt, um die Haushaltsbedingungen und Verwendungsmuster von Umweltressourcen zu untersuchen. Diese Prägungen können Entwaldung, Erhaltung oder Abbauprozesse vorhersagen und beeinflussen. Erkenntnisse, wie die hier vorgestellten, verdeutlichen jedoch die Notwendigkeit von Bottom-up-Perspektiven vor der Umsetzung globaler Klimaschutzmechanismen wie REDD+. In praktischer Hinsicht liefern die Studienergebnisse Einblicke zur Konzeption von REDD+ Ansätzen für Projektentwickler und Entscheidungsträger. Die partizipative und intensive Beteiligung der lokalen Gemeinden an der Waldnutzung ist der einzige Weg, um die Erhaltung und nachhaltige Entwicklung der tropischen Wälder zu gewährleisten. Darüber hinaus sollten die ethnische Diversität sowie die traditionelle Ressourcennutzung aufrecht erhalten und gefördert werden. / Los bosques representan fuentes vitales de alimentos e ingresos para los hogares rurales, en especial durante períodos de crisis. Por lo tanto, la deforestación y la degradación forestal pueden poner en peligro los medios de subsistencia de las comunidades que dependen de los bosques. Además, la deforestación es la segunda causa más importante de emisiones de Gases Efecto Invernadero (GEI) y desencadena la pérdida de biodiversidad y el cambio climático. Los medios de subsistencia rurales necesitan una atención especial, ya que son altamente vulnerables a los efectos del cambio climático. En este contexto, REDD+ ha surgido en la mesa de negociación de la Convención marco de las Naciones Unidas para el Cambio Climático (CMNUCC) como una opción asequible para mitigar el cambio climático y, al mismo tiempo, para promover el desarrollo sostenible. Sin embargo, se necesita una mejor comprensión de los potenciales impactos positivos y negativos de la implementación de REDD+. Esto último, es especialmente importante en el caso de los Pueblos Indígenas (IP) y los campesinos dependientes de los bosques tropicales. La investigación presentada es un estudio a varios niveles que contribuye a elucidar las posibles implicaciones de la implementación de REDD+ desde una perspectiva de local hasta internacional. La región de la Reserva de la Biosfera del Yasuní en Ecuador fue seleccionada como estudio de caso. La región es parte de un proyecto REDD+ realizado por la ONG alemana Welthungerhilfe. Aquí se eligieron los tres grupos étnicos más representativos que habitan en la zona de amortiguamiento del Parque Nacional Yasuní. Se seleccionaron como grupos de estudio dos comunidades de cada etnia, los grupos indígenas Shuar y Kichwa y los colonos (mestizos), con diferentes distancias a los mercados. El enfoque multiescalar comienza en el nivel del hogar, luego sube a la comunidad y al final al nivel del paisaje regional. A nivel de hogar, se presenta un análisis de la generación de ingresos a partir de fuentes de subsistencia y dinero en efectivo. En resumen, todas las comunidades estudiadas generan altos ingresos fuera de la finca como mano de obra no calificada trabajando para las compañías petroleras y reciben ayuda externa. El estudio también muestra que los Indígenas tienen una mayor dependencia de los recursos forestales y ambientales en comparación con los colonos. Eventualmente, estos altos ingresos generados fuera de la finca podrían reducir, al menos temporalmente, la presión sobre los bosques. En este contexto, REDD+ constituye un incentivo débil para los hogares estudiados cuando se compara con los altos ingresos de la mano de obra no calificada. Esto se aplica aún más cuando se considera el involucramiento en las actividades del proyecto de REDD+ que requieren mucho tiempo, como la reforestación, monitoreo forestal, etc. A nivel comunitario, se analiza la configuración de la tierra y el marco institucional para la toma de decisiones sobre los recursos compartidos. Aquí se presentan dos formas de arreglos comunales: Regímenes Comunes de Gestión de la Propiedad (CRPM) y Cooperativas de Colonos. El marco teórico de Ostrom (1990) sobre la gobernanza de los recursos communes (CPR) se utiliza como marco conceptual. Los resultados sugieren que cada vez más, tanto la configuración de la tierra de las IP como las organizaciones comunitarias están adquiriendo características mestizas. Este mestizaje promovido parcialmente por el gobierno a través de los legados de la Reforma Agraria y los actuales marcos legales está desencadenando la privatización de las fincas dentro de las tierras comunitarias y por lo tanto promoviendo la fragmentación del bosque y afectando las formas ancestrales de regularización para el uso de los recursos. A nivel del paisaje se presenta una revisión de la configuración histórica y territorial así como los planes de manejo para la Reserva de la Biosfera Yasuní. Además, se discuten marcos legales para REDD+, así como mecanismos de consulta y participación. De acuerdo con los datos del presente estudio, la inseguridad en la administración de la tierra y los derechos de titulación pueden obstaculizar la implementación de REDD+ y generar conflictos debido a la superposición de tierras indígenas con bloques de petróleo y áreas protegidas. Además, las incoherencias entre los planes de gestión y los marcos jurídicos reducen la participación efectiva y la toma de decisiones de los Inddígenas y los pequeños agricultores. El análisis concluye sugiriendo una visión de paisaje amplia e integrada para el área del Yasuní. El marco teórico de medios de vida (Lifelihood Framewrok) se ha utilizado comúnmente para estudiar las condiciones de los hogares y generar patrones de uso de recursos ambientales que pueden moldear y predecir procesos de conservación, deforestación o degradación. Sin embargo, intentos como el presentado aquí ejemplifican la necesidad de perspectivas ascendentes previo a la implementación de mecanismos globales de mitigación como REDD+. Desde la perspectiva práctica, los resultados proporcionan nuevas percepciones para los desarrolladores de proyectos y los formuladores de políticas para el diseño de enfoques REDD+. La verdadera y plena participación de las comunidades locales en la gobernanza de los bosques es la única manera de alcanzar la conservación y el desarrollo sostenible de los bosques tropicales. Además, igual de importantes son la diversidad pluricultural y la promoción de reglas tradicionales para el uso de los recursos, así como las prácticas tradicionales.

Submitted by Edisangela Bastos (edisangela@ufpa.br) on 2013-08-22T12:08:12Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertacao_ExtractivismoPalmasEtnia.pdf: 1600542 bytes, checksum: 18883e440507fcb11bee5d61cd4b7461 (MD5) license_rdf: 23898 bytes, checksum: e363e809996cf46ada20da1accfcd9c7 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ana Rosa Silva(arosa@ufpa.br) on 2013-08-22T14:24:59Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertacao_ExtractivismoPalmasEtnia.pdf: 1600542 bytes, checksum: 18883e440507fcb11bee5d61cd4b7461 (MD5) license_rdf: 23898 bytes, checksum: e363e809996cf46ada20da1accfcd9c7 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2013-08-22T14:25:00Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertacao_ExtractivismoPalmasEtnia.pdf: 1600542 bytes, checksum: 18883e440507fcb11bee5d61cd4b7461 (MD5) license_rdf: 23898 bytes, checksum: e363e809996cf46ada20da1accfcd9c7 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007 / O estudo atual foi feito no setor sul oriental da Amazônia equatoriana, na floresta protetora da bacia elevada do rio Nangaritza, em três centros indígenas Shuar: Shaime, Yayu e Napints, pertencentes à jurisdição Politico-Administrativa de Zurmi, do canto de Nangaritza, província de Zamora Chinchipe. São organizados e representados na associação Shuar Tayunts, além dos seus “Diretivas” e “Clubes centrais”. Trata-se de um esforço para apresentar a dinâmica sócio-ambiental do povo Shuar no extrativismo das palmas, para o qual se faz uma análise sócio-histórica destes três Centros Shuar; se estuda sua composição florística e a estrutura das palmeiras. Em cada um dos Centros se fez a amostragem em 0,3 ha e foram recenseados todos os indivíduos com CAP ≥ 10 cm, Shaime apresentou 4 espécies, Yayu 5 e Napints 3 espécies. No total foram 7 espécies registradas em 5 gêneros com 164 indivíduos. As palmeiras com maior área basal são Wettinia maynensis, Oenocarpus bataua e Prestoea schultzeana; e as de maior importância ecológica são Wettinia maynensis e Oenocarpus bataua. A regeneração natural é considerada aceitável, especialmente de Oenocarpus bataua, Wettinia maynensis, e Socratea exorrhiza. O índice de diversidade Shannon-Wiener de todas as espécies tem um valor de 1,34; a similaridade de Sorensen apresenta Napints e Shaime como os de maior similaridade com 85,71%, a apresenta também a Prestoea acuminata e a Wettinia maynensis como espécies compartilhadas entre os três Centros Shuar. São 9 as Etnocategorias de uso, as famílias Shuar dão maior valor total às etnocategorias de alimentação humana, construção, alimentação para animais de caça e pesca e de artesanato. / The present study has been carried out in the Southeastern sector of the Ecuadorian Amazon, in the Protected Area of the high Nangaritza River basin in three Indigenous Centers of the Shuar People: Shaime, Yayu and Napints, which belong to the Political-Administrative jurisdiction of the Zurmi Parish, in Nangaritza Corner, Province of Zamora Chinchipe. They are organized and represented in the Shuar Tayunts Association, in addition to its Directors and Central Clubs. This work is an effort to present the Shuar’s socio-environmental dynamics on the exploitation of palms, for which a socio-historical analysis of these three Centers is realized. Its floristic composition and palms were studied taking into consideration the ecological parameters, density, basal area, frequency, importance value index, the Shannon-Wiener diversity index and the Sorensen similarity index; as well as the sustainability of use and handling that their populations make, which results are a valuable contribution offered to to future management and recovery of the area. / El presente estudio se realizó en el sector sur oriental de la Amazonía ecuatoriana, en el Bosque Protector de la Cuenca Alta del Río Nangaritza; en tres Centros Indígenas Shuar: Shaime, Yayu y Napints; pertenecen a la jurisdicción Política-Administrativa de la Parroquia Zurmi, Cantón Nangaritza, Provincia de Zamora Chinchipe. Se encuentran organizados y representados en la Asociación Shuar Tayunts, además de sus diferentes Directivas y Clubes Centrales. Se trata de un esfuerzo por dar a conocer su dinámica socio-ambiental del pueblo Shuar sobre el extractivismo de palmas, para lo cual se hace un análisis socio-histórico de estos tres Centros; se estudia su composición florística y estructura de las palmeras. En cada Centro se muestreo 0,3 ha y se censaron todos los individuos con CAP ≥ 10 cm, Shaime presentó 4 especies, Yayu 5 y Napints 3 especies. En total fueron 7 especies registradas en 5 géneros con 164 individuos. Las palmeras con mayor área basal son Wettinia maynensis, Oenocarpus bataua y Prestoea schultzeana; las de más alto valor de importancia ecológica son Wettinia maynensis y Oenocarpus bataua. La regeneración natural es considerada aceptable; especialmente de Oenocarpus bataua, Wettinia maynensis, y Socratea exorrhiza. El índice de diversidad de Shannon-Wiener de todas las especies da un valor de 1,34; la similaridad de Sorensen presenta a Napints y Shaime como los de mayor similaridad con 85,71%., presenta así mismo a Prestoea acuminata y Wettinia maynensis como especies compartidas entre los tres Centros Shuar. Son 9 las etnocategorias de uso; las familias Shuar dan el mayor valor total a las etnocategorías de alimentación humana, construcción, alimentación para animales de caza y pesca y a la artesanal.

xx, 229 p. : ill. (some col.) / Reproductive effort is a central element of human biology and ecology. Particularly for females, reproduction is energetically demanding, with elevated metabolic costs during pregnancy and lactation, followed by high child care costs. To satisfy energetic needs, women can adopt various physiological and behavioral strategies. On a physiological level, the energetic requirements of offspring may be met by adjusting metabolic allocation and/or drawing on maternal bodily reserves. On a behavioral level, women may reduce energy expenditure and/or increase energy intake. This study examined reproductive trade-offs in activity and skeletal health among the indigenous Shuar forager-horticulturalists of Ecuadorian Amazonia and had two main objectives. First, this research examined trade-offs in energy use during female reproductive states and behavioral adjustments made by females and males to meet high reproductive demands. Second, this study investigated skeletal health profiles among Shuar, as well non-Shuar Colonos, to identify the relationships between female reproductive factors and skeletal health. Research was conducted among adults in four Morona-Santiago communities. Skeletal health was measured using calcaneal ultrasonometry, and physical activity was measured using accelerometry. Extensive information on sociodemographics and reproduction was assessed through structured interviews. Age-related declines in bone mineral density (BMD) were observed for Shuar and Colonos, while Shuar BMD was significantly higher than that of other populations. These results suggest that normative data from developed countries may reflect suboptimal bone density levels. Regarding reproductive effects on skeletal health, results indicate that earlier menarcheal age and greater stature are associated with better bone health in postmenopausal life. These conclusions suggest the importance of the timing of early developmental stages in establishing bone status in adulthood. Results demonstrate that physical activity levels were similar between pregnant/lactating (P/L) and other women. However, P/L women appear to compensate for elevated energetic demands by relying on a male partner who has increased his energy expenditure, suggesting greater participation in subsistence activities. Overall, this study demonstrates the importance of biocultural strategies among women to meet high reproductive costs. Further, it emphasizes the utility of a life history framework for identifying trade-offs in physiology and behavior. This dissertation contains previously published and unpublished co-authored material. / Committee in charge: Dr. J. Josh Snodgrass, Chair; Dr. Lawrence S. Sugiyama, Member; Dr. John Lukacs, Member; Dr. John Halliwell, Outside Member