Although the psychological contract has been a popular topic in managerial research for the past twenty years, recent critiques of the research in this area point to several shortcomings. These are believed to result primarily from the overwhelming use of field studies, survey questionnaires, and other correlational procedures in the study of this construct. One particular research question that has generated mixed results involves the effect that one's underlying contract (either transactional or relational) has on individuals' perceptions of contract breach and feelings of violation following an employer's breach. This study sought to gain insight into this question by using an experimental study design to assess the impact that exchange congruence — or the match between the nature of the underlying contract and the nature of the breach — has on employees' perceptions of breach and feelings of violation. An experimental design was used and data was collected from 421 subjects in six treatment groups and two control groups. The treatment groups examined the effects of withdrawal breach (without resource substitutions) and both congruent and incongruent resource substitutions in transactional and relational work contexts. Also, two control groups in which no psychological breach was induced were examined. The results of the experiment differ for the transactional and relational treatments. No significant differences in perceptions of breach or violation were found with regard to the type of breach induced among the transactional treatments. Among the relational treatments, subjects that received incongruent resource substitutions perceived significantly higher levels of breach and violation than those that received congruent substitutions. Also, among the relational treatments, levels of perceived breach were significantly higher for the incongruent substitute treatment than for the withdrawal breach treatment. Therefore, the results of this study indicate that breach perceptions and feelings of violation vary for employees depending not only on the type of contract they hold, but the type of breach that they experience. In addition, the study demonstrated that an experimental design is applicable to this literature and that it could advance our understanding of the psychological contract in ways that are not possible with cross-sectional field studies. / Ph. D.

The aim of the study is to develop knowledge about what employees in communication agencies and its customers perceive as central to the relationship. The research questions are: What do communication agencies experience as central to the relationship with customers? and What do customers experience as central in the relationship with communication agencies? Based on Social Exchange Theory (SET), supplemented with Behaviorally Driven Relationship Marketing Theory (BRM), we have investigated what is central in the communication agency– customer. As a basis for achieving our goal, we have in total conducted semi-structured interviews with nine people, six people from a communication agency and three of their customers. We have interviewed employees from both a communication agency and from customers to achieve a more nuanced view of the research problem. In our thematic analysis of our interview transcripts we found the concepts Phases in the Relationship, View of the Relationship, and Cooperation as central aspects. Through these aspects we illustrate the respondents' perceptions of what is central in the relationship. The study's results indicate that the longer the relationship is, the better the cooperation gets, which enables both parts possibilities to achieve desired product. In addition, a crucial part of this seems to be the start up phase and an equal view of the relationship. Furthermore, an ongoing relationship should be characterized with trust, commitment and two-way communication.

Att hyra kläder är ett fenomen som fått ökat intresse de senaste åren. Inte minst i forskningen där det visat sig komma med miljömässiga fördelar. Kläduthyrning är en form av cirkulär ekonomi och ett svar på textilindustrins negativa miljöpåverkan och dess linjära arbetssätt. Trots vetskapen om dessa existerar fortfarande en stor efterfrågan av nyproducerat mode, varför kläduthyrning kan vara ett hållbarare sätt att uppfylla konsumenternas behov att förnya sig. Syftet med studien är att öka förståelsen för hur konsumenter upplever kollektiv konsumtion, specifikt kläduthyrning. Med dess kvalitativa karaktär identifieras upplevda fördelar respektive nackdelar hos konsumenten samt skillnader och likheter mellan beprövade hyrkoncept. Datainsamlingen baserades på tolv semistrukturerade intervjuer med konsumenter som har erfarenhet av att hyra kläder. Respondenternas svar har analyserats genom Social Exchange Theory (SET) och sedan kategoriserats in i olika teman. Den teoretiska modellen har även stått som grund för att förstå hur konsumenterna väger fördelar och nackdelar mot varandra i valet att hyra kläder. Genom studiens identifierade teman kunde även upplevda skillnader och likheter mellan koncepten konstateras samt användas som underlag för att förstå varför konsumenterna upplever dessa olika. Utifrån respondenternas svar identifierades fem olika uthyrningsmodeller. Genom attapplicera SET urskiljdes sex hedonistiska respektive sex utilitariska motiv samt att tillit och låg risk var faktorer som spelade in. Studien kom även fram till en modifierad version av SET vilken indikerar att vissa faktorer väger tyngre än andra. Flera utilitariska faktorer sam tupplevd risk visade sig vara mer avgörande trots att konsumenterna upplevde fler fördelar gentemot nackdelar. Resultatet visade också att när konsumenter väl provat att hyra kläder är inställningen generellt positiv. Denna studie bidrar därför till en bredare kunskap om kollektiv konsumtion och affärsmodeller inom kläduthyrning. Studien kan även vara användbar i vidare forskning samt för utveckling av branschen och liknande affärsmodeller. Uppsatsens presenteras på svenska. / Renting clothes is a phenomenon that has gained increased interest in recent years, not least in the research field where one has discovered environmental benefits. Clothing rentals are part of the circular economy and is a response to the negative environmental impact caused by the linear way of working in the textile industry. Despite this knowledge, there is still a high demand for newly produced fashion. Thus, renting clothes can be a way of fulfilling consumer needs to renew themselves with less negative environmental impact. The purpose of this study is to gain further understanding of how consumers experience collaborative consumption, specifically clothing rental. With its qualitative nature, this study identifies consumers perceived advantages and disadvantages as well as differences and similarities between rental models. By conducting twelve semi-structured interviews with experienced consumers data was collected. Through the lens of Social Exchange Theory (SET), the respondents’ answers could be categorized in to different themes. The theory also worked as a tool to analyze how consumers weigh perceived advantages and disadvantages when choosing whether or not to use a rental service. Through the identified themes, perceived differences and similarities between various rental services could be determined and used as a basis for understanding why consumers experience the concepts differently. Based on the answers of the respondents’, five different rental models were identified. By applying SET six hedonistic and six utilitarian motives was found. In addition, trust and reduced risk were important factors in the consumers decision. The research also resulted in a modified version of SET that implies that some factors weight heavier than others. Several of the utilitarian motives as well as perceived risk were more decisive, despite the fact that consumers experienced more advantages than disadvantages. The result also showed that once consumers have experienced the concept of renting clothes, their attitude is generally positive. Therefore, this study contributes to deeper knowledge about collaborative consumption and business models based on clothing rental. It can also be useful in further research as well as for the development of the industry and similar business models. This report is presented in Swedish.

Significant work has taken place in the development of our understanding of business dyadic relationships but much work remains to be done in determining the antecedents, particularly our understanding of cultural contexts. This research aims to add to the debate about what counts in developing a long-term orientation in channel relationships by investigating the role of the concept of market orientation; it explores the possible interface existing between the marketing concept and development of channel relationships. The context is relationships between distributors and suppliers in Taiwan. This study examines the relationship literature from a social exchange theoretical perspective and conducts multiple-case in-depth interviews at the dyadic ends to develop an integrated research model for analysing potential effects of market orientation on the relationship factors influencing long-term oriented relationship building. Quantitative mixed-mode questionnaire surveys were undertaken to test the research model and hypotheses drawn from the model. Data were collected from 158 distributors from four selected business sectors, including both commodity and noncommodity ones. The results confirm the applicability of the marketing concept to an eastern country: Taiwan, and provide empirical evidence that adoption of the marketing concept can be a strategy for stimulating and sustaining long-term oriented channel relationships while mediated by a number of relationship constructs. Communication and shared value are highlighted as the primary mediators while satisfaction signals an inclination to continue a relationship. Market orientation is found to exert significant direct effects on communication and shared value and indirect effects on the other relationship components: trust, cooperation, commitment, conflict and satisfaction, which all contribute to a continuing relationship.

Having high employee loyalty is something which most organisation strive to obtain. Not only because of the morals of it, but also because of the fact that high levels of employee loyalty have been proven in many studies to increase operational performance. However, the literature on the concept provides many different definitions on it, and also suggest many different factors that affect how loyal an employee feels towards their organisations. The studies conducted previously on the topic has mainly been quantitative studies researching the connection between levels of loyalty and performance, and at specific companies or industries. As soon to be newly graduated students, the authors of this study also found the lack of comparison between people with different working experience interesting. Due to these reasons, the purpose of this study was to dig deeper into the concept of employee loyalty, how it is defined and which factors that affect the level of loyalty an employee feels towards an organisation. The sub-purposes of this study involve comparing one group of people with 1-3 years of working experience to another group with more than 15 years of working experience. The research question that was developed to be answered in this thesis is as follows: How does the view upon employee loyalty and the factors affecting it differ between people whom have been working for more than 15 years versus 1-3 years?  In order to answer the research questions and fulfil the purpose, a comparative qualitative study was conducted through semi-structured interviews. In line with some previous studies, the Social Identity theory and the Social Exchange theory were used in order to explain the factors affecting employee loyalty. The first focuses upon the level of identification the respondents feel towards different components of the organisation, while the other focuses on factors of exchange between the organisation and its employees. These theories, and theories connected to what employee loyalty is, was used in order to develop a conceptual model which served as a foundation for the data collection, empirical findings, and the analysis.  The empirical findings of this thesis showed that while some definitions of employee loyalty and the factors which are affecting it are similar between the groups, there were also some differences. Employee loyalty was defined by most as someone whom has a behaviour and attitude which is positive, does what is expected from them and whom represents the company in a good manner. The difference between the groups regarding employee loyalty were that the group with more experience seem to have higher demand to classify someone as a loyal employee than the group with less experience has. Moreover, the most evident difference of what affects employee loyalty was that the factor competence development was by far most important for the groups with less experience, while a responsive organisation was what the group with more experience found important in order to keep employees loyal.  Conclusions drawn from this study is that “softer” factors like the relationship’s employees have between each other, the organisational culture, and sense of opportunity for personal growth seem to be far more important for employees than physical benefits. Furthermore, there seem to be some differences regarding employee loyalty between groups with different levels of working experience which is why this thesis recommends organisations to be responsive to its employees’ needs and adapt their management to all employees.

This research explores the linkages between HR practices and business sales performance in a retail bank branch network. Whilst previous research in the last two decades has generally supported the notion that when appropriately designed HR practices can help enhance organizational outcomes, there is still ongoing debate regarding how such practices can actually influence business results. In particular, academics have highlighted the importance of the quality of HR implementation, because this can affect employee day-to-day experiences of and reactions to the HR practices which can impact on variance in the business results. In effect, it is crucial for research to take up the employee lens of the implemented practices and their reactions to these, if the HR-performance relationship is to be clearly understood. This thesis contributes to this research agenda by adopting the social exchange lens to shed light on the nature of the aforementioned relationship. A multidisciplinary and multilevel HR-performance model was employed for conducting empirical tests. Specifically, the empirical model was constructed from the literature in three different fields: strategic human resources management, social exchange theory and psychological contract, with the aim of eliciting the nature of employer-employee exchange relationships in the HR process. Subsequently, the model was tested using the data obtained from 1,286 employees in 149 bank branches and analysed so as to assess the multilevel process through which HR practices can influence business sales performance. The empirical results indicate that an organization can improve branch sales performance by paying careful attention to several processes pertaining to the implementation of HR practices. That is, through the psychological contract process, employees, based on their perceptions of the quality of the received practices (i.e. HR level and breach), reciprocate the organization with their discretionary performance, i.e. commitment attitudes and organizational citizenship behaviours and these outcomes have an impact on business results. Moreover, the findings also point to a boundary condition, whereby the HR-performance relationship can be enhanced by stressing the role of the key constituencies responsible for delivering these practices, namely: senior management and the line manager. That is, respectively, through the affective and relational processes, these agents can have an impact on employee perceptions of HR level and whether there has been a breach of the psychological contract, which in turn influence employee reactions in the causal chain. In summary, having applied the social exchange perspective to elicit the employee interaction with the different quality of HR implementation across bank branches, this study has contributed to the literature by identifying the key processes including psychological contract, relational and affective processes through which HR practices can impact on business sales performance, thereby illustrating how an organization’s human resources can serve as the source of sustained business competitive advantage.

In small businesses in the United States, specifically those with fewer than 10 employees, leaders may be skeptical of and resistant to the use of social media in their management operations. Management literature does not indicate clear and effective guidelines and policies detailing small marketing firms use of social media. The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore the perceptions of small marketing firm leaders about the resources and knowledge needed for effective use of social media as a management tool. Emerson's social exchange theory grounded the study. The study targeted owners and managers of small marketing firms in Dallas, Texas, with three to five years of experience and firms who use social media in their firm management or operations. Twenty-three participants satisfied the criteria. Data were collected through interviews, questionnaires, and document reviews. Yin's 5-phase analysis was used to analyze the data. The primary result of the study is that small businesses that use social media in the Dallas, Texas, area reported various gains, including increased awareness about their business, valuable customer feedback, and customer retention. The study may have a positive social change impact by providing information on strategies and benefits of using social media as a management tool not only to small marketing firms in Texas, but also to very small businesses in other sectors.

Managers' ability to engage virtual employees (those in different geographic locations) is a determining factor of employee productivity and commitment to an organization. Since 2005, the number of U.S.-based virtual employees increased; however, research regarding virtual communication and employee engagement is limited. The purpose of this quantitative study was to examine if a significant correlation exists between employee engagement (the dependent variable) and the quantity and perceived quality of virtual management communication (the independent variables). The research question assessed the correlation among the quantity of time managers spend communicating with virtual employees, quality of virtual communication, and employee engagement. Homans's social exchange theory served as the theoretical framework. Data collection involved an online survey from 71 U.S.-based virtual employees, working primarily from home. The results of the regression analysis were statistically significant, F(2, 67) = 7.14, p = .002, R2 = .18, indicating that quantity of time a manager a spent communicating with virtual employees and the virtual employees' perceived quality of communication positively affected employee engagement. Findings indicated that managers who communicate more frequently and have a higher perceived quality of communication are more likely to have engaged employees. Business leaders can use this study to inform managers of the need for frequent, high-quality communication with their virtual employees. The findings will contribute to social change by providing organizational leaders with useful strategic information to increase the employee engagement of home-based virtual employees.

Child welfare has been part of American society since the early 1900s and continues to play a pivotal role in response to troubled families. Although there is a need for qualified child welfare staff, the process of maintaining staff is a constant struggle for many child welfare agencies. Many states are experiencing high turnover rates within the child welfare system, and Florida has been acutely impacted. Researchers have demonstrated that the nature of the work, supervision, and other organizational factors continue to contribute to job satisfaction among child welfare professionals. Guided by the social exchange theory as the theoretical framework, which is based on intraorganizational relationships and workplace behavior, this quantitative study determined which indices of job satisfaction influenced retention among workers in Palm Beach County, Florida. It also examined how job satisfaction impacted different worker groups. Using Spector's Job Satisfaction Survey and additional demographical questions, data were analyzed to measure job satisfaction among the different worker groups (n = 18). A 2-tailed t test, analysis of variance, and multivariate analysis of variance indicated that adoption workers were more satisfied than were dependency workers in each of the 9 indices measured and that having a degree in social work did not influence job satisfaction among the different worker types. By understanding the factors related to job satisfaction in Palm Beach County, Florida, child welfare agencies can implement measures and procedures geared at increasing retention among child welfare workers.

The healthcare system in the US faces substantial challenges related to cost, access and quality. Health Information Exchange (HIE) has been widely viewed as a viable solution for dealing with those challenges. Despite the potential contributions to the healthcare system that HIE promises, adoption and use of HIE have always been difficult, and the past two decades have witnessed significant HIE implementation failures. The limited understanding of HIE is a major obstacle for HIE success. Only recently in-depth research about HIE starts to appear in top IS journals. In addition, the uniqueness of healthcare industry adds to the complexity to HIE. Our study attempts to address this research gap by systematically examining multiple factors that influence HIE adoption and use. Using social exchange theory (SET) and diffusion of innovations theory, a research model was developed to empirically test major factors that impact healthcare providers’ relative advantages and risks perceptions for adopting and using HIE. It is further proposed that relative advantages and risks in turn impact organizations’ intentions for adopting and continuously using HIE. As such, we posit that organizations’ assessments of relative advantages and risks associated with HIE mediate the impacts of organizational and technological factors on organizations’ adoption and use intentions. This study uses questionnaire surveys for data collection. Out of a total of 163 responses, 117 surveys were completed and were analyzed using Partial Least Square software SmartPLS 3. Data analysis finds that most of the relationships were in the hypothesized directions with some of the relationships being significant. Specifically, top management support, absorptive capacity, trust, and HIE innovation characteristics positively affect relative advantages and negatively affect risk. Furthermore, relative advantages positively affect adoption/continuance intentions, whereas risk negatively affects adoption/continuance intentions. This study contributes to the literature and offers important practical implications. It is one of the early empirical attempts to understand the key factors that affect HIE’s adoptions and use. The research can also serve as a starting point for more in-depth studies in the future. Moreover, practitioners can use the several newly-developed scales to empirically examine healthcare providers’ adoption and use intentions.