Social exclusion is a psychologically stressful experience that impairs people’s ability to control specific behaviors or events. In the current study, I attempted to reconcile competing predictions regarding whether exclusion is especially harmful to control, or self-regulate, when it is attributed to individual- or group-based characteristics of a person. Per the self-evaluation maintenance (SEM) model, social exclusion should be most detrimental to self-regulation when it is directed at a person’s unique traits, or individual self. In contrast, social identity theory (SIT) predicts that exclusion is especially damaging when it is directed at a person’s group membership. I examined whether the seemingly contradictory predictions made by SEM and SIT are because they relate to different circumstances concerning the fairness of the exclusion experience. Most research regarding individual-based exclusion involves situations in which the exclusion seems fair, or deserved, whereas research regarding group-based exclusion focuses on discrimination, or unfair exclusion. An online exclusion paradigm (i.e., “College Survivor”) was used to examine the role of fairness. During the Survivor game, Latina women experienced either individual- or group-based exclusion that was either fair or unfair. Afterwards, participants were asked to taste and rate three bowls of chocolate that were ostensibly manufactured in three countries that used different recipes. The findings demonstrated that participants consumed the most calories (i.e., showed the greatest loss of self-control) when exclusion was fair and directed towards their individual selves, or when exclusion was unfair and directed towards their group selves.

The relationship between Black Americans and African immigrants can be described in many ways, and one of those descriptions is distant. Due to a number of reasons, relationships between the two ethnic groups sometimes result in dissociation. In understanding the dissociation between Black Americans and African immigrants, this study takes a look at cultural identity, ethnic identity, avowal and ascription, and how they connect to the issue of dissociation between the two ethnic groups. This study uses social identity theory and mediated intergroup conflict as its theoretical foundation. Narrative approach and grounded theory approach are used as the study’s methodological approaches, and the study also analyzes its findings using three phases of data analysis; memo-writing analysis, narrative analysis, and hermeneutic analysis. Only a few studies concerning the dissociation between Black Americans and African immigrants have been conducted, and it is this study’s objective to add to the current literature. It is important to note that this study is an exploratory research on the dissociation between the two ethnic groups. Overall, the study’s findings indicate that the dissociation between Black Americans and African immigrants is due to the cultural differences between the two ethnic groups and how those differences are communicated.

Denna uppsats hade som syfte att undersöka fotbollshuliganers upplevelse av våld och supporterskap för att få en djupare förståelse för fenomenet huliganism. Detta analyserades med hjälp av teorier om social identitet. Utifrån intervjuer med fyra huliganer kom analysen fram till att huliganerna skapar en norm där de upplever det våld som de själva utför som rätt, eftersom det inte skadar andra människor än de själva. Detta skapade temat Våld under vissa premisser. Utöver detta var två andra teman som framträdde som viktiga Rivalitet och Gemenskap. Det gick att finna att huliganerna skapar en social identitet som bygger på synen på våld som bra när det sker i koppling till sitt supporterskap, och att gemenskapen inom den så kallade huliganfirman och rivaliteten mot andra firmor är av vikt. / This paper has sought to analyze and contribute to an understanding of football hooligans' experiences of supportership and violence. This was done in order to attain a deeper understanding of the phenomena of football hooliganism. The analysis was carried out with theories on social identity. Through interviews with four hooligans, the analysis shows that the hooligans create a norm within their firm where violence is seen as justified when carried out under specific circumstances. This created the theme Violence under certain circumstances. In addition to this, two other themes that emerged from the analysis were Rivalry and A sense of community. It is found that the hooligans create a social identity that is built on their views on violence as justified in connection to their supportership, and that the community within the so-called hooligan firm as well as rivalry towards other firms are important aspects.

Cross-functional teams are becoming increasingly common in organisations. However, a large proportion of these teams fail to meet their full potential as social and productive units. The present research was conducted under the assumption that a cross-functional team involves simultaneous intragroup and intergroup contact. The failure of cross-functional teams often involves the neglect of normal social psychological processes that occur in intergroup contexts that may potentially be employed to increase the likelihood of success with cross-functional teams. The social identity theory approach to intergroup relations was used to formulate two identity management strategies intended to improve the functioning of a cross-functional team. One strategy involved social interaction within an intragroup social frame. The intragroup aspect was apparent in that there was no outgroup present, with participants operating at the intergroup level of psychological processing after exposure to (successful) pre-task manipulations intended to facilitate acceptance of the task group social identity. The intragroup identity management process required increasing pre-task salience of the task group social identity, absence of any outgroup, wearing a team uniform, and performance of an intellectually challenging problem solving as a group. A second identity management process was based in an intergroup social frame. The intergroup procedure involved pre-task manipulation of social identity, wearing of a team uniform, and performance of a physically and intellectually involving problem solving task in a competitive intergroup social frame. Two separate studies were performed. In Study one, 110 university students were randomly assigned to 'mono-functional' teams (teams with no obvious basis for internal intergroup differentiation). The relative efficacy of either of the two identity management processes was assessed with regards to changes in social identity, subjective uncertainty, conceptualisation of the aggregate, similarity, heterogeneity, effort, and trust. Pre-post within groups differences were analysed Improving functioning of cross-functional teams by repeated measures ANOVA. Between groups differences were analysed with ANCOVA. The results indicated both identity management strategies resulted in improved team functioning. In general, neither strategy was notably superior to the other, however there was less subjective uncertainty reported by participants from the intragroup condition than those from the intergroup condition due to the effect of losing the competition. Participants from losing teams also became more aware of 'subgroups within the single group' than those from the intragroup condition. Participants from the intergroup condition were less likely to think of themselves as separate individuals than participants from the intragroup condition. The social identity theory approach to intergroup relations was useful for interpreting the results as well as developing the two strategies which suggests SIT/SCT provide a potentially useful conceptual base from which to develop team building processes in mono-functional teams. In study 2, 110 university students were assigned to cross-functional teams (composite task groups containing three academic subgroups). The identity management processes used in Study one were extended by drawing participant attention to the presence of subgroups within the cross-functional teams. The intragroup process involved pre-task manipulation of social identity, wearing uniforms which denoted both task group and subgroup membership, and performance of an intellectually challenging problem solving task which was performed with out an outgroup present. The intergroup identity management strategy involved pre-task manipulation of social identity, performance of a physically and intellectually involving problem solving task requiring integration of subgroup knowledge and inter-functional cooperation within a competitive intergroup context. As in the intragroup condition, participants were made aware of the social complexity of the task group through their uniforms. Participants responded differently to the two identity management processes, with the intergroup strategy proving more beneficial than the intragroup strategy. The intragroup process was marked by non-significant pre-post differences, indicating neither Improving functioning of cross-functional teams a marked improvement nor decline in group functioning. In contrast, participants from the intergroup condition reported results indicating increased post-task self-definition with the cross-functional team, increased trust, and higher effort. Losing the competition did not impact on post-task levels of any dependent variable with the exception of subjective uncertainty, where 'winners' reported less uncertainty than 'losers'. The intergroup condition gave rise to the most potential perceived 'distinctiveness threat'; however there was no sign of any threat across the array of dependent variables. Therefore it can be suggested that the intergroup identity management strategy provided some protection to the cross-functional team from the negative impact of inter-functional distinctiveness threat. All results could be explained with recourse to the concepts of SIT/SCT which suggests social identity theory has utility for interpreting results as well as developing team building processes in cross-functional teams. Future research in cross-functional team settings would benefit from the development of comprehensive measures of uncertainty, status, and heterogeneity with item content drawn from social identity and self-categorisation theories.

The present research provides the first analyses of Australian women directors from the perspective of social identity theory. The overall objective of the research program is to confirm the validity of social identity theory to the study of women on corporate boards and in doing so, add to the limited knowledge regarding successful women directors. An aim of the research was to identify factors that are significant in the social identity of women who are successful directors of corporate boards. These factors were revealed through a longitudinal study (over six years) of changes in the demographic characteristics of the women and their board positions. Factors were revealed through their perceptions of their effectiveness as an ostensibly minority (female) board member. Similarities in stereotyped attitudes to men and women board directors confirmed their status as an ingroup member. Through identification of significant factors in women’s success as board directors it is hoped to assist both individual women who are striving for success on corporate boards and organisations who wish to make more effective use of women on their boards. Five studies examined various aspects of women directors’ experiences and influences through three survey instruments that were used to collect data over a period of six years. A survey design allowed the gathering of detailed data on a variety of items thought to be relevant to women’s experiences of being directors and allowed the data collected to be oriented to a theoretical framework. Thus, a survey design was deemed superior to common alternatives of analysis of archival company annual report data or re-analysis of data collected by executive search companies for a study of corporate directors. A survey of 572 Australian women directors in 1995 identified many characteristics of women directors. A profile of a typical Australian women director was constructed and compared to international research on women directors covering a similar period (e.g., Burke, 1994b; Catalyst, 1993; Holton, Rabbets & Scrivener, 1993). An examination of differences between the characteristics of executive and nonexecutive women directors confirmed that the two director roles could be perceived as distinct groups. A further survey of the women six years later examined changes in their characteristics and board experiences. Of the 298 women who had agreed to follow-up research, 59 surveys were returned as no longer at the same address, 23 women indicated that they were no longer on a corporate board, and 32 were current corporate directors. Changes in the women’s profiles that the directors had attained through increased board memberships and more central board roles were interpreted as indicators of success. Based on research by Cejka and Eagly (1999), similarities and differences in stereotypical attitudes of men and women directors were examined in relation to social identity theory. Factors in nonexecutive women directors’ identification as board directors, their perceptions of their ability to contribute as board directors, and their behaviour as a board directors were assessed by measures from Karasawa (1991) and Westphal and Milton (2000). The present research program demonstrated the value of social identity theory as a vehicle for understanding Australian women director’s experiences on corporate boards. For the present research, social identity theory provided insights into how successful Australian women directors perceive themselves and other members of their ingroup of board directors. By contributing to a deeper understanding of successful women directors, it is hoped that a greater number of women will be able to successfully join ingroups of board directors, thereby breaking down the barriers to women.

This thesis investigates the nature and the development of a delinquent social identity. Three issues are addressed. These concern the negative identity that results from social comparison processes in school, the role of the peer group in delinquency and the variable nature of the delinquent social identity. One argument of the thesis, which is based on the concepts of self-categorization theory, is that the delinquent social identity develops out of a negative identity because of perceived differences between groups of adolescents in the school in terms of their commitment to academic studies and their attitude towards authority. The first study in this thesis demonstrates that compared to non delinquents, delinquents are more likely to perceive their social status in the school to be low as well as stable, and are more concerned about their reputation among their peers. Also, delinquents are more likely to rationalize against guilt through the techniques of neutralization, are more likely to value unconventional norms and tend to have negative experiences, both at home and in school. Based on social identity theory, this thesis argues that delinquency arises out of a search for an alternative positive identity through " social creativity ", which is only possible through the group. Membership in a delinquent group or a delinquent social identity offers the delinquent a sense of " positive distinctiveness " which is derived from the rejection, redefinition and reversal of conventional norms. It is only through a social identity where members perceive each other as interchangeable and share an interdependency, that such a reversal receives social validation, and that members achieve a sense of self-consistency which becomes part of their reputation. The second study in this thesis confirms that delinquents show a relative preference for a group strategy of derogation of the outgroup for coping with negative social comparison, rather than one which involves an individual strategy of competition, and that this group strategy is more likely to enhance their self-esteem. Delinquents' tendency to reverse conventional norms is demonstrated in the third study of the thesis, which also revealed that this reversal is evident only when delinquents are compared to non delinquents, and that this rejection is not total. These findings not only provide support for Cohen's subcultural theory of delinquency but also that of Sykes and Matza who argue that delinquents drift in and out of such behaviours. In fact, this thesis suggests that this drift can be explained in terms of a shift in the salience of identity. Because the delinquent identity is a social identity, it is variable and context-dependent. Differences in attitudes towards authority, rationalizations against guilt and self-derogation can be explained by differences in the salience of the delinquent social identity. The last three studies of the thesis provide evidence of these variations with both self-report and incarcerated delinquents.

This thesis examines the way in which traditional accounts of gender differences in the self-concept have relied on distal explanatory factors, and have thus conceptualised the gendered self as stable across both time and situation. This notion of a stable, gendered self has been implicated as underlying of a range of psychological gender differences (e.g., Cross & Madson, 1997), such as those in moral reasoning (e.g., Gillian, 1982) and ways of knowing (e.g., Belenky et al., 1989). As a result, these behaviours are also seen to be stable across time and context.¶ An alternative perspective is investigated, which looks to social identity theory and self-categorisation theory for a conceptualisation of both gender and the self-concept as being malleable and context-dependent (e.g., Turner et al., 1987). The social identity perspective describes the way in which proximal aspects of the social context affect the expression of gender-related behaviours, attitudes, and beliefs. In this way, the social identity perspective provides an analysis of group membership, group norms, and social influence which can not only account for the differences that are observed between men and women, but can also offer an analysis of the context-dependence of these difference and an approach by which gender differences can be mollified.¶ A series of nine empirical studies are reported, investigating the way in which individuals (a) define themselves, (b) approach moral reasoning, and (c) approach knowledge and learning, across a number of different social contexts. Together, the results suggest that the self-concept, moral orientation, and ways of knowing are neither stable nor inherently gendered, but are malleable and dependent on the nature of the self-other relationship as defined by the proximal aspects of the social context. The implications for traditional theories of gender differences are discussed, as are the broader implications for feminism and social change.

Negative characterisations of social groups threaten group members’ social identities evoking various group-protective responses. Drawing on research about the functions of lay conceptions of humanness in social perception, the current research investigated a novel group-protective strategy: believing that an in group’s negative traits (flaws) are fundamental aspects of ‘human nature’ (HN). A similar protective strategy has been documented when acknowledging flaws in the individual self; this was extended to the acknowledgement of in group flaws in the current studies. In Study 1 (N = 77),participants’ in group-descriptiveness ratings of flaws were most strongly predicted by their HN ratings of flaws, suggesting that people may selectively acknowledge HN flaws as in group-descriptive. Study 2 (N = 51) demonstrated that flaws were rated higher on HN when attributed to an in group than to an out group. However, this effect was not found for positive traits, suggesting that it may reflect a motivation to protect a threatened in group-identity. Study 3 (N = 79) replicated this asymmetrical ‘humanising of in group flaws’ effect, and found that it was independent of desirability. In addition in group-identification was measured in Study 3 and found not to moderate the humanising of in group flaws. / Finally, in Study 3 participants also rated traits on an alternative sense of humanness, known as ‘human uniqueness’ (HU). The asymmetrical humanising of in group flaws effect was not found for the HU dimension, indicating that HN may be better suited to the protective function of mitigating flaws. These studies indicate that HN beliefs are systematically related to in group flaw-acknowledgement and suggest that in order to mitigate their in group’s flaws and thus protect the value of their social identities, people may be motivated to (a) selectively acknowledge HN flaws as in group-descriptive; and (b) ‘humanise’ flaws attributed to their in group Further more, the current research supports the claim that HN is an important dimension of social perception (e.g., Haslam et al., 2008); extends the relevance of this dimension to perceptions of in groups; and suggests that the HN concept should be understood as dynamic and flexible, rather than fixed.

<p>European higher education is being faced with more and more challenges arising fromdiversity. Diversity arises as Universities seek to achieve higher levels ofinternationalisation by accepting students from as many countries as possible. Everyoneseems to be of the opinion that diversity is essentially a good thing. However, studies haveshown that diversity does not always lead to productivity. In Sweden for example, researchhas found that groups with gender diversity have more productive outcomes, while groupswith ethnic diversity display less positive outcomes. In general, research on highereducation has often showed that ethnic minority students achieve lower levels ofperformance than other students.This thesis studies the factors that affect the attitudes of ethnic minorities, first from a socialidentity point of view, and then by looking at other factors such as expectations ofemployment and the effects of studying in a new educational system. The social identityprocesses that are important in a student context are examined so as to determine those thathave a stronger effect on minority students.For this study, interviews were carried out with three students, and questionnaires were alsoadministered. From the analysis, it is observed that ethnic minority students suffer negativeeffects from being in a cultural minority and often feel dominated by the surroundingculture. Also, they develop less positive attitudes towards their studies because of loweremployment expectations, difficulties of adapting to a new setting and less preparation intheir earlier education.It is suggested that in order to create a more favourable environment for ethnic minoritystudents, steps must be taken to create a better psychological atmosphere for minoritystudents. Also, steps should be taken to improve social contact between students and toenhance the process of group work.The main limitations of the study are time, scope and cost. To be able to carry out a morein-depth study of school performance, it is important to perform more interviews andsurveys, covering a longer time frame.</p>

<p>Identity includes an individual´s self-image and the consciousness about their self. It is about being the same person despite changes in their life situation. The identity often get´s fragile because of the disease. Beacuse of the individual´s feeling of lost identity there may arise a conflict between the person and people in his or her surroundings. They may no longer see the sick person in the same way as they used to. The purpose of this study was to highlight how disease in everyday life and admission to a hospital affects the identity. The study was carried out as a litterature based study. There were especially two categories that were important, the social dimension of identity and the personal dimension of identity. The personal identity is mostly related to the fact that the person is admitted to hospital and the concept of autonomy, integrity, dignity and empowerment. The social identity is more about the relationship to family, friends and colleagues, but it is also related to the nurse-¬¬¬¬¬patient relationship. The different parts of identity in relation to itself and to others do have a common influence. A large part of the personal freedom is deprived during a stay in the hospital. It is important that the nurse pays attention to the patient´s individual personality and habits. This will make that person feel well respected and it will also make it easier for the individual to maintain his or her identity. It is important to highlight how disease affects the identity, both in the nurseprofession and in the education to become a nurse. More research in the areas identity and caring is needed.</p>