Cette thèse prend pour objet l’institutionnalisation paradoxale d’une fonction d’inspection de la culture. Alors que le contrôle de l’État sur la culture représente un tabou, cette administration a considérablement renforcé et rendu visibles ses capacités d’inspection entre 1959 (création du ministère) et nos jours. Les conditions de possibilité d’un tel retournement constituent donc une énigme historique. Notre argumentation éprouve l’idée selon laquelle le contrôle de l’État sur les politiques culturelles n’a pu s’afficher et être assumé comme tel, depuis les années 2000, qu’à la condition d’être présenté comme une modalité de surveillance dépolitisée. À travers le cas de l’administration de la culture, et plus particulièrement des usages politiques de ses inspections, nous questionnons donc plus largement la dépolitisation de la décision politique. L’enquête commencée en 2013 mobilise une méthodologie mixte, qui associe étroitement méthodes qualitatives et quantitatives, au service d’une perspective diachronique embrassant la période 1950-2017. / This dissertation addresses the paradoxical institutionalization of inspectorates in the French ministry of Culture. While state control over culture is taboo, this administration has significantly strengthened and made visible its inspection capabilities between 1959 (creation of the ministry) and 2017. The conditions of possibility of such a reversal constitute a historical and sociological puzzle, that our dissertation seeks to explain. Our argument is based on the idea that state control over cultural policies managed to appear and be explicitely undertaken as such since the 2000s, provided that it is presented as a depoliticized surveillance modality. Through the case of the administration of culture, and more particularly the political uses of its inspections, we question more broadly the depoliticization of the political decision. The survey started in 2013 relies on a mixed methodology, which closely associates qualitative and quantitative methods, at the service of a diachronic perspective covering the period 1950-2017.

Le contexte socio-économique marqué par la division du travail favorise les fermetures de marché. La professionnalisation représente un type de fermetures par lequel un groupe occupationnel cherche à obtenir et à maintenir le contrôle de l'environnement interne et externe de son activité économique afin d'éviter que ce contrôle s'exerce exclusivement de l'extérieur. En maintenant le contrôle sur un champ de compétence ou sur une fermeture de marché, un groupe assure la maîtrise de sa survie professionnelle et socio-économique. La recherche de fermeture de marché est une explication possible des considérations sousjacentes à l'intérêt d'un groupe occupationnel pour la professionnalisation. Cette considération ne compromet pas nécessairement la mission de protection du public qui doit guider les ordres professionnels dans l'exercice de leurs pouvoirs de contrôle. En effet, le processus de légitimation favorise au contraire le respect de cette mission. Par ce processus, un groupe occupationnel maintient non seulement la reconnaissance sociale de sa compétence et de son utilité mais également l'exercice des pouvoirs de contrôle qui lui sont octroyés. La légitimité ainsi acquise permet de maintenir le degré de crédibilité nécessaire à la survie du groupe. Cette explication de l'intérêt pour la professionnalisation a été élaborée à partir des critères de trois approches sociologiques qui sont le fonctionnalisme, l'interactionnisme et le conflictualisme. Ces approches ont servi à examiner en premier lieu le Code des professions et en second lieu les stratégies et les arguments de deux acteurs sociaux qui ont un point de vue opposé sur ce phénomène social de l'intérêt pour la professionnalisation. / The social economical context characterized by the division of labour favoured the development of c1osed labour markets. The formation of professions is part of this social phenomenon. By controlling internaI and external factors of its economic activity, an occupational group avoids or at least influences in its favour the control exercised by others. It also protects its field of competence from other groups and can even extend it into other spheres. Exercising control over its activity secures professional, social and economical status. This may explain why the formation of professions is so popular. However, such considerations do not necessarily compromise public protection. On the contrary, the legitimatization of an occupational group ensures public protection. A group needs to acquire and maintain not only social recognition of its competence and usefulness but also to legitimise its control. Such legitimacy is required to maintain professional, social and economical status. This explanation to the social phenomenon of formation of professions is based on three sociological views, namely functionalism, interactionism and conflictualism. From these perspectives, the Profèssional Code is first considered. It is followed by the study of the strategies and the arguments of two social groups who hold different views on the formation of professions.

A partir d'une étude empirique sur la manière dont les universitaires ont adopté ou non de nouvelles pratiques après la réforme des écoles doctorales en France, ma thèse étudie comment une réforme organisationnelle par le haut peut changer les pratiques de professionnels autonomes. Les pratiques nouvelles ne sont effectivement adoptées que lorsqu'elles font sens par rapport à l'identité professionnelle. Or,celle-ci n'évolue pas en réponse à un pilotage précis des réformateurs,mais à la définition, par les professionnels, de problèmes nouveaux justifiant une modification des manières de faire. Par conséquent, un changement radical (impliquant une évolution de l'identité) ne peut être piloté par le haut, mais seulement favorisé à travers la structure de l'organisation : des interactions régulières entre groupes professionnels,et avec les autres parties prenantes de l'organisation (usagers, citoyens,financeurs) créent un terrain favorable à ce changement. Cette thèse discute la marge de manœuvre des réformateurs dans le contexte des organisations professionnelles publiques, ainsi que les leviers de changement à leur disposition. / Based on an empirical study of how academics did or did not adopt new practices after the reform of doctoral school in France, my PhD thesis studies how a top-down organizational reform can change practices among autonomous professionals. New practices are effectively adopted only when they make sense relatively to extant professional identities. The latter do not evolve in response to a precise steering by the reformers, but to new problems definition by the professionals, leading to new ways of doing. Consequently, a radical change of practice implying an evolution of identity cannot be steered from top-down, but only supported by the organizational structure. Regular contacts between professional groups and with other stakeholders (users, citizens, funders) create a favorable context for such a change. My thesis discusses the possible scope of action for reformers in professional public organizations and the levers of change they might rely on.

Cette thèse a pour objectif d'enrichir la notion de professionnalisation. S'articulant autour des notions de régulation de l'entrée dans un corps professionnel et de fabrique de professionnels, elle propose une conception originale du processus de professionnalisation des formations universitaires. Elle tente principalement de construire une typologie des formations à partir de l'analyse synchronique et diachronique de leurs contenus et de leurs méthodes d'apprentissage. Ce travail mobilise un ensemble hétéroclite de travaux de sciences sociales allant de l'histoire des universités et de la sociologie des professions à la philosophie aristotélicienne. À partir de la question de recherche « Quels types de professionnels les formations universitaires sont-elles en mesure de fabriquer ? », il part du postulat que la nature des savoirs transmis fixe les modalités de cette fabrication. Il montre que ces savoirs participent de trois types de discipline (discipline pratique, discipline scientifique et discipline poïétique) auxquels sont rattachés quatre types de formation : la formation professionnelle généraliste, la formation professionnelle spécialiste, la formation professionnelle scientifique et la formation professionnelle poïétique. / This thesis aims to enrich the concept of professionalization. This work proposes an original conception of the process of professionalization of the university academic programs. This work is based on the concepts of regulation of the entrance into a profession and of making of the professionals. It primarily seeks to construct a typology thanks to the analysis of training content and learning methods from a synchronic and a diachronic point of view. This work uses resources from history of universities, sociology of professions and aristotelian philosophy. Starting from the following research question « What types of professionals the university academic programs are able to make? », it assumes that the nature of knowledge obtained by a student determines the conditions of this making. This knowledge consists of three types of discipline (practice discipline, scientific discipline and poietic discipline) which are related to four types of trainings : professional generalist training, professional specialist training, professional scientific training and professional poietic training.

Deux axes structurent ce travail de recherche : la comparaison franco-allemande et la construction de l’identité professionnelle de journalistes de la presse quotidienne nationale/suprarégionale. La construction de l’identité professionnelle est analysée au carrefour des interactions entre le journaliste comme individu, l’organisation dans laquelle il est employé, le groupe professionnel et l’environnement social, tout en tenant compte du cadre culturel de chaque pays dans lequel ces interactions se situent. Pour mener cette analyse à partir d’une trentaine d’entretiens semi-directifs réalisés avec des journalistes print et web, un regard croisé sur les approches développées par des chercheurs en France et en Allemagne a servi de point de départ. Afin de restreindre l’objet de recherche, la comparaison a été limitée aux rubriques politique, société et culture. La coexistence du journal papier et du site web défie l’identité professionnelle des journalistes, et influence l’image de soi et la perception respective des journalistes print et web. Dans ce contexte, des différences entre le print et le web qui se traduisent par des ressemblances transnationales parmi les journalistes de chaque support apparaissent, même si tous les journalistes se retrouvent unis par des attaches identitaires communes liées à d’anciens idéaux du métier.Malgré ces fortes ressemblances, la construction de l’identité professionnelle est influencée par le contexte national : notamment les différences d’organisation étatique se reflètent à divers niveaux, allant de la structure du paysage de presse et de l’organisation des rédactions et services jusqu’à la formation et la mobilité professionnelle des journalistes. / The present work is structured by two main perspectives: the French-German comparison and the construction of the professional identity of national daily press journalists. The construction of professional identity is analyzed taking into account the conjunction of interactions between the journalist as individual, the organization in which he is employed, the professional group to which he belongs and his social environment, with consideration of the cultural background of each country in which these interactions take place. Before conducting this analysis on a basis of approximately thirty semi-structured interviews that have been conducted with print and online journalists, we first took a closer look on the approaches developed by researchers in France and Germany. In order to limit the object of this research, the comparison has been restricted to the following specializations: politics, society and culture.The coexistence of the print edition and the newspaper’s website defies the professional identity of journalists and has an impact on the self-perception and the perception of each other of print and online journalists. In this context, differences between print and online journalists appear which lead to transnational similarities between the journalists of each support (print or web), even if all journalists are united by common references linked to ancient ideals of the journalists’ profession.Despite these strong similarities, the construction of the professional identity is influenced by the national context: especially the impact of the differences in each country’s administration can be observed on different levels, for example in the structure of the media landscape and the news organizations and their departments as well as in the journalists’ training and their professional mobility.

À la croisée des sociologies des sciences, de l’éducation et du travail, cette thèse présente, à partir d’une analyse de l’ensemble des disciplines de l’enseignement supérieur, une série de processus qui contribuent à la perpétuelle remise en cause de la légitimité scientifique des sciences sociales dans la recherche française contemporaine. Cette analyse en trois temps, historique, statistique puis par enquête par questionnaire et entretiens met en évidence un phénomène de désavantages cumulatifs de ces domaines. Institutionnalisées dans les facultés de lettres et de droit dans une période d’ascension forte de la légitimité de celle des sciences, les sciences sociales occupent une position inconfortable d’altérité et d’infériorité scientifiques, que l’enseignement secondaire contemporain contribue à entretenir. Situées à l’intersection des pratiques des sciences humaines, biologiques et mathématiques, ces disciplines se voient fréquemment accusées de ne pas répondre au modèle des sciences physiques. Scindées en deux facultés, les profils scolaires et sociaux de leurs étudiants et de carrières de leurs chercheurs sont plus hétérogènes que dans les sciences non sociales, ce qui affaiblit leur cohérence. Intériorisant leur position dominée, ces disciplines naturalisent la faiblesse des moyens qui leurs sont accordés en les justifiant par des besoins temporels spécifiques et une imprévisibilité indépassable. / Combining the sociology of science, of education and of professions, this thesis analyses the field of academic disciplines to present a series of social process contributing to the constant questionings regarding the scientificity of the social sciences in contemporary France. This three steps analysis (historical, statistical, and through surveys and interviews) unveils a phenomenon of cumulative disadvantages for these disciplines. Institutionalized in the Facultés of law and literature in a period of important rise to power of the scientific one, social sciences have been considered as “other” and “inferior” in terms of scientificity from the beginning, a situation that is strongly maintained today through the implicit hierarchies of fields taught in high school. At the crossroad of humanities, biological and mathematical sciences, the scientific practices of the social sciences are frequently evaluated and denigrated through the criteria of the physical sciences. Divided into two facultés, students and faculties in those fields have more heterogeneous social and educational backgrounds then those in other sciences, contributing to a social image of dissensus. Interiorizing their subordinated position, social scientists tend to justify the small share of resources that they receive through the valorization of specific temporal needs and unpredictability of their research.

The digitization of media has undermined much of the social authority and economic viability on which U.S. journalism relied during the 20th century. This disruption has also opened a central tension for the profession: how to reconcile the need for occupational control against growing opportunities for citizen participation. How that tension is navigated will affect the ultimate shape of the profession and its place in society. This dissertation examines how the leading nonprofit actor in journalism, The John S. and James L. Knight Foundation, has sought to help journalism innovate out of its professional crisis. This case study engages a series of mixed methods—including interviews, textual analysis, and secondary data analysis—to generate a holistic portrayal of how the Knight Foundation has attempted to transform itself and the journalism field in recent years, particularly through its signature Knight News Challenge innovation contest. From a sociology of professions perspective, I found that the Knight Foundation altered the rhetorical and actual boundaries of journalism jurisdiction. Knight moved away from “journalism” and toward “information” as a way of seeking the wisdom of the crowd to solve journalism’s problems. This opening up of journalism’s boundaries created crucial space in which innovators, from inside and outside journalism, could step in and bring change to the field. In particular, these changes have allowed the concept of citizen participation, which resides at the periphery of mainstream newswork, to become embraced as an ethical norm and a founding doctrine of journalism innovation. The result of these efforts has been the emergence of a new rendering of journalism—one that straddles the professional-participatory tension by attempting to “ferry the values” of professional ideals even while embracing new practices more suited to a digital environment. Ultimately, this case study matters for what it suggests about professions in turbulent times. Influential institutions can bring change to their professional fields by acting as boundary-spanning agents—stepping outside the traditional confines of their field, altering the rhetorical and structural borders of professional jurisdiction to invite external contribution and correction, and altogether creating the space and providing the capital for innovation to flourish. / text

Le contexte socio-économique marqué par la division du travail favorise les fermetures de marché. La professionnalisation représente un type de fermetures par lequel un groupe occupationnel cherche à obtenir et à maintenir le contrôle de l'environnement interne et externe de son activité économique afin d'éviter que ce contrôle s'exerce exclusivement de l'extérieur. En maintenant le contrôle sur un champ de compétence ou sur une fermeture de marché, un groupe assure la maîtrise de sa survie professionnelle et socio-économique. La recherche de fermeture de marché est une explication possible des considérations sousjacentes à l'intérêt d'un groupe occupationnel pour la professionnalisation. Cette considération ne compromet pas nécessairement la mission de protection du public qui doit guider les ordres professionnels dans l'exercice de leurs pouvoirs de contrôle. En effet, le processus de légitimation favorise au contraire le respect de cette mission. Par ce processus, un groupe occupationnel maintient non seulement la reconnaissance sociale de sa compétence et de son utilité mais également l'exercice des pouvoirs de contrôle qui lui sont octroyés. La légitimité ainsi acquise permet de maintenir le degré de crédibilité nécessaire à la survie du groupe. Cette explication de l'intérêt pour la professionnalisation a été élaborée à partir des critères de trois approches sociologiques qui sont le fonctionnalisme, l'interactionnisme et le conflictualisme. Ces approches ont servi à examiner en premier lieu le Code des professions et en second lieu les stratégies et les arguments de deux acteurs sociaux qui ont un point de vue opposé sur ce phénomène social de l'intérêt pour la professionnalisation. / The social economical context characterized by the division of labour favoured the development of c1osed labour markets. The formation of professions is part of this social phenomenon. By controlling internaI and external factors of its economic activity, an occupational group avoids or at least influences in its favour the control exercised by others. It also protects its field of competence from other groups and can even extend it into other spheres. Exercising control over its activity secures professional, social and economical status. This may explain why the formation of professions is so popular. However, such considerations do not necessarily compromise public protection. On the contrary, the legitimatization of an occupational group ensures public protection. A group needs to acquire and maintain not only social recognition of its competence and usefulness but also to legitimise its control. Such legitimacy is required to maintain professional, social and economical status. This explanation to the social phenomenon of formation of professions is based on three sociological views, namely functionalism, interactionism and conflictualism. From these perspectives, the Profèssional Code is first considered. It is followed by the study of the strategies and the arguments of two social groups who hold different views on the formation of professions. / "Mémoire présenté à la Faculté des études supérieures en vue de l'obtention du grade de Maîtrise en droit (L.L.M.)". Ce mémoire a été accepté à l'unanimité et classé parmi les 10% des mémoires de la discipline. Commentaires du jury : "Contribution aux connaissances. Recherche fouillée. Approche intéressante".

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / Apesar de ser a primeira profissão da área social a conquistar regulamentação federal no Brasil, o Serviço Social, ainda hoje, encontra dificuldades na definição das suas competências e, principalmente, das suas atribuições privativas. A partir da análise da Lei 8662/93, bem como do processo legislativo que culminou na sua aprovação no Congresso Nacional, esse trabalho dissertativo busca desvelar, fundamentado nos pressupostos teóricos da sociologia das profissões, as conexões existentes entre a estrutura legal da profissão e a indefinição das tarefas específicas dos assistentes sociais, estas já sinalizadas por pesquisas da área e pelo CFESS. Para alcançar os objetivos propostos, também são analisadas e contrapostas as produções de importantes autores do Serviço Social que se dedicaram a refletir sobre os temas relacionados à legislação profissional e ao significado social da profissão, o que aponta para a construção de mais incertezas do que elucidações sobre o assunto. / Despite of being the first profession of social area to win federal regulation in Brazil, the social work still faces difficulties in defining their tasks, and especial its exclusives competences. From the analysis of Law 8662/93, as well as the legislative process that culminated in its adoption in Congress, this dissertation seeks to reveal, based on the conceptual framework of the sociology of professions, the connections between the professional legislation and the uncertainties in definition the specific tasks of the social workers, these already identified by the research from the CFESS. To achieve the proposed objectives are also analyzed and contrasted the productions of important authors of Social Work who have dedicated themselves to reflect on subjects related to professional legislation and the social significance of the profession, which points to the construction of more uncertainty than elucidations about the subject.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / Apesar de ser a primeira profissão da área social a conquistar regulamentação federal no Brasil, o Serviço Social, ainda hoje, encontra dificuldades na definição das suas competências e, principalmente, das suas atribuições privativas. A partir da análise da Lei 8662/93, bem como do processo legislativo que culminou na sua aprovação no Congresso Nacional, esse trabalho dissertativo busca desvelar, fundamentado nos pressupostos teóricos da sociologia das profissões, as conexões existentes entre a estrutura legal da profissão e a indefinição das tarefas específicas dos assistentes sociais, estas já sinalizadas por pesquisas da área e pelo CFESS. Para alcançar os objetivos propostos, também são analisadas e contrapostas as produções de importantes autores do Serviço Social que se dedicaram a refletir sobre os temas relacionados à legislação profissional e ao significado social da profissão, o que aponta para a construção de mais incertezas do que elucidações sobre o assunto. / Despite of being the first profession of social area to win federal regulation in Brazil, the social work still faces difficulties in defining their tasks, and especial its exclusives competences. From the analysis of Law 8662/93, as well as the legislative process that culminated in its adoption in Congress, this dissertation seeks to reveal, based on the conceptual framework of the sociology of professions, the connections between the professional legislation and the uncertainties in definition the specific tasks of the social workers, these already identified by the research from the CFESS. To achieve the proposed objectives are also analyzed and contrasted the productions of important authors of Social Work who have dedicated themselves to reflect on subjects related to professional legislation and the social significance of the profession, which points to the construction of more uncertainty than elucidations about the subject.