Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / O Oceano Austral é a região oceânica de maior extensão em que os macronutrientes necessários à produção primária permanecem em níveis elevados por todo ano. Essa condição é conhecida como High Nutrient Low Clorophyll (HNLC) e é determinada, em grande parte, pela relativa escassez de micronutrientes, particularmente o ferro. Diversos experimentos comprovaram que a entrada de ferro neste sistema intensifica a produção biológica, aumentando a fixação do carbono e, eventualmente, sua exportação para águas profundas. Este fenômeno recebeu muita atenção nos últimos 20 anos devido a sua possível influencia no clima, via ciclo do carbono. A relação inversa entre concentração de CO2 na atmosfera e o fluxo de poeira mineral observados em registros glaciais da Antártica Central sugere que a deposição atmosférica pode ser uma importante via para o aporte de micronutrientes. Porém, a contribuição da deposição de poeira mineral para a produção primária nesta região permanece para ser demonstrada e seu possível papel no sistema climático ainda não é conclusivo. No caso do setor Atlântico do Oceano Austral, que recebe influência da Patagônia, os baixos fluxos modernos de poeira mineral e a baixa solubilidade do ferro associado à estrutura dos alumíniossilicato levam muitos autores a postular que fontes oceânicas de micronutrientes sejam mais determinantes. Faltam, no entanto, evidências experimentais. Neste trabalho, abordamos o estudo da fertilização do setor Atlântico do Oceano Austral pela poeira da Patagônia utilizando duas ferramentas: (1) o sensoriamento remoto orbital de aerossóis minerais e clorofila-a em escala interanual; e (2) um experimento de fertilização, com poeira da Patagônia, realizado na Passagem de Drake, considerando fluxos estimados para a era moderna e para o último glacial. Após doze dias de bioensaio, os tratamentos de adição de poeira mostraram a elevação da clorofila-a e da abundância de células em níveis acima dos controles. Níveis intermediários e maiores de adição não diferiram entre si na intensidade de resposta biológica, separando-se apenas da menor adição. Esses resultados indicam que a poeira da Patagônia, mesmo nos fluxos atuais, é capaz de prover os micronutrientes escassos na coluna dágua, com potencial para deflagrar aumentos significativos de biomassa. Através da análise por sensoriamento remoto, identificamos uma região de alta correlação entre poeira e clorofila-a, que está localizada entre a Frente Subtropical e a Frente Polar, se estendendo da Argentina ao sul da África. Esta região difere das águas ao sul da Frente Polar pela menor profundidade da camada de mistura, menor concentração de silicatos, baixa biomassa de diatomáceas e, estima-se, maior estresse fisiológico devido à escassez de ferro e menor aporte oceânico deste nutriente. Em conjunto, essas características parecem criar condições que tornam a resposta biológica mais sensível à deposição de poeira mineral. Estes resultados lançam nova luz sobre o controle atual da produção primária na região e sobre a hipótese da regulação climática pelo fitoplâncton no Oceano Austral, mediado pela deposição de poeira da Patagônia. / The Southern Ocean is the larger ocean region where the macronutrients needed for primary production remain in high levels through the year. This condition is known as High Nutrient Low Chlorophyll (HNLC) and is conditioned, largely, by the relative shortage of micronutrients, particularly iron. Several experiments proved that the supply of iron to this system enhances biological production, increasing carbon fixation and, eventually, its exportation to deep waters. This phenomenon received much attention in the last 20 years due to its possible influence in the climate, through carbon cycle. The inverse relationship between the atmospheric CO2 concentration and the mineral dust flux observed on the Central Antarctic glacial records suggest that atmospheric deposition may be an important source for the supply of micronutrients. However, the contribution of mineral dust deposition for the primary production in this region remains to be demonstrated and its possible hole in the climate system its not yet conclusive. In the case of Atlantic Southern Ocean, thats influenced by Patagonia, the low modern flows of mineral dust and the low iron solubility associated with aluminum-silicate structure led many authors to state that oceanic sources of micronutrients are more determinants. However, experimental evidence are lacking. In the present work, we approach the study of fertilization of Atlantic Southern Ocean by Patagonian dust employing two different tools: (1) orbital remote sensing of mineral aerosols and chlorophyll-a on inter-annual scale; and (2) a fertilization experiment with Patagonian dust, carried through in Drake Passage, considering estimated flux for the modern era and for the last glacial. After twelve days of bioassay, the dust addition treatments showed increase on chlorophyll-a and cell abundance beyond controls levels. Intermediary and higher levels of addition didnt differ between each other regarding the intensity of biological response, separating only of the lower addition treatment. These results indicate that even modern Patagonia dust flux is capable of providing micronutrients that are scarce in the water column, with potential to deflagrate a bloom. Through remote sensing analysis we have identified a region with high correlation between dust and chlorophyll-a, thats located between the Subtropical Front and the Polar Front, extending from Argentina to south of Africa. This region differs from waters south of the Polar Front by means of a deeper mixed layer, lower silicate concentrations, low diatom biomass and, is estimated, greater iron physiological stress and lower iron oceanic supply. Together, these properties seem to create conditions to which biological response would be more sensible to dust deposition. These results cast new light over controls on modern primary production in the region and over the phytoplankton climatic regulation in the Southern Ocean, mediated by Patagonian dust deposition.

L'Océan Austral est connu pour être la plus vaste zone "High-Nutrient, Low-Chlorophyll" de l'océan mondial. Bien que les concentrations en nutriments (nitrates, phosphates, silicates) soient élevées, le développement du phytoplancton est paradoxalement limité principalement par les faibles concentrations en fer (Martin et al. 1990). Les archipels de Crozet et des Kerguelen, situés dans le secteur Indien de l'océan Austral, constituent deux obstacles topographiques importants à l'écoulement vers l'Est du Courant Circumpolaire Antarctique. L'interaction du courant avec les sédiments des plateaux peu profonds alimente en fer les eaux en aval de ces îles, générant ainsi d'importants blooms phytoplanctoniques (Blain et al. 2007, Pollard et al. 2007). Ceux-ci constituent des laboratoires à ciel ouvert uniques pour étudier la réponse des écosystèmes et l'impact de la fertilisation naturelle en fer sur les cycles biogéochimiques. Cette thèse s'inscrit sans le cadre du projet KEOPS-2. Les isotopes du radium (223Ra, 224Ra, 226Ra et 228Ra), qui constituent de puissants outils pour étudier la circulation océanique et le mélange, sont les principaux outils utilisés ici. Les quatre isotopes du radium ont des périodes radioactives allant de quelques jours à plus d'un millier d'années et sont produits par la décroissance radioactive du thorium dans le sédiment. Ils sont apportés à l'océan par des processus de diffusion et d'advection où ils se comportent comme des traceurs conservatifs de telle manière que la masse d'eau garde la signature de son contact avec les sédiments modulée par la période radioactive des isotopes du radium. Par conséquent, les isotopes du radium ont été utilisés pour (i) tracer l'origine et la dispersion des éléments chimiques - y compris le fer - libérés par les sédiments et (ii) estimer les échelles de temps du transit des eaux de surface depuis les plateaux continentaux vers le large. Les informations acquises avec les isotopes du radium ont été comparées aux informations issues d'outils physiques (flotteurs dérivant de surface et modèle Lagrangien dérivé de l'altimétrie). Premièrement, la comparaison de ces trois méthodes indépendantes - géochimiques et physiques - dans la région de Crozet a permis de valider leur utilisation. Deuxièmement, nous avons montré que le panache de phytoplancton associé aux îles Crozet est alimenté par deux sources différentes d'eau qui ont interagi avec soit le plateau ouest soit le plateau est. Troisièmement, cette approche couplée physique-géochimique a également été utilisée dans la région des Kerguelen et a aidé à contraindre l'origine de la fertilisation en fer dans cette zone. L'observation d'activités significatives de 223Ra et 224Ra dans les eaux de surface à l'est des îles Kerguelen indique que ces eaux ont récemment interagi avec des sédiments peu profonds. La variabilité spatiale de ces activités en surface au sud du Front Polaire (PF) suggère que le passage des eaux et des éléments chimiques à travers ou via le PF peut varier à la fois spatialement et temporellement. Cette voie constituerait donc un mécanisme de fertilisation (en fer et autres micronutriments) du bloom phytoplanctonique qui se développe au large des îles Kerguelen. Ces résultats indiquent que le PF n'agirait donc pas comme une barrière physique aussi forte qu'on le pensait, pour les masses d'eau et les éléments chimiques. Ces conclusions pourraient également s'appliquer à d'autres systèmes de fronts de l'océan mondial. Finalement, j'ai compilé les distributions de 226Ra et de baryum dissous (Ba) au large des îles Crozet et Kerguelen dans le but de fournir des contraintes supplémentaires sur la circulation locale. En particulier, des variations temporelles des rapports 226Ra/Ba dans la phase dissoute ont été observées. Parmi les hypothèses potentielles, on peut évoquer (i) des changements de la circulation ou (ii) un impact des processus biologiques sur les concentrations de Ra et Ba de la phase dissoute. / The Southern Ocean is known to be the largest High-Nutrient, Low-Chlorophyll region of the global ocean. While nutrient concentrations (nitrate, phosphate, silicate) are high, the phytoplankton development is paradoxically limited mostly because of the low dissolved iron concentrations of the Southern Ocean waters (Martin_iron_1990). The Crozet and Kerguelen Archipelagos, located in the Indian sector of the Southern Ocean, constitute two major topographic obstacles to the eastward-flowing Antarctic Circumpolar Current. The interaction of the current with the sediments of the shallow Crozet and Kerguelen plateaus contributes to the supply of iron downstream of these islands, thus leading to large phytoplankton blooms in these regions (Blain et al. 2007, Pollard et al. 2007). These phytoplankton blooms constitute unique open-air laboratories to study the response of the ecosystems and the impact on biogeochemical cycles to natural iron fertilization. This PhD thesis was done in the framework of the KEOPS-2 project. Radium isotopes (223Ra, 224Ra, 226Ra and 228Ra), that are powerful tools to study the ocean circulation and mixing, are the main tools used here. The four natural occurring isotopes display half-lives ranging from a few days to thousands of years and are produced by the decay of particle-bound thorium isotopes in sediments. They are delivered to the open ocean by diffusion and advection processes where they behave as conservative tracers in such a way that the water body keeps the signature of its contact with the sediments modulated by the half-lives of the radium isotopes. Therefore, we used Ra isotopes to (i) investigate the origin and the dispersion of the sediment-derived inputs - including iron - and (ii) to estimate the timescales of the transfer of surface waters between the shelf and offshore waters. We compared the Ra dataset with data acquired using physical tools (surface drifters and Lagrangian model derived from altimetry). Firstly, the use of three independent methods - including geochemical and physical methods - in the Crozet region allowed us to validate each method. Secondly, we show that the Crozet Island phytoplankton plume is fed by two different flows of water that interacted with either the western plateau or the eastern plateau. Thirdly, this physical-geochemical coupled approach was also used in the Kerguelen region and helped us to constrain the origin of the iron fertilization in that area. The observation of 223Ra and 224Ra in surface waters east of the Kerguelen Islands, south of the polar front (PF), indicates that these waters have recently interacted with shallow sediments. The spatial variability observed in the 223Ra and 224Ra distribution in surface waters south of the PF suggests that the input of waters and associated chemical elements across or via the PF - potentially driven by wind stress or eddies - act as sporadic pulses that may highly vary in both space and time. This pathway may thus constitute a mechanism that contributes to fertilizing the phytoplankton bloom with iron and other micronutrients east of the Kerguelen Islands. This finding also suggest that the PF may not act as a strong barrier for surface waters and associated chemical elements, a finding that may also apply for other frontal systems of the world's ocean. Finally, we investigated the 226Ra and barium (Ba) distributions offshore from the Crozet and Kerguelen islands, with the aim to provide additional constraints on the circulation patterns in this area. In particular, we observed temporal changes in the dissolved 226Ra/Ba ratios. Among potential hypothesis, one can invoke (i) changes in the circulation patterns or (ii) the impact of biological processes on the dissolved Ra and Ba concentrations.

L'intensification de l'effet de serre due à l'augmentation des concentrations de CO 2 dans l'atmosphère pourrait être plus élevée si ce n'est du rôle important de l'océan en tant que puits pour le CO 2 atmosphérique. Malheureusement, une conséquence de la capacité de l'océan à tamponner le CO 2 est l'acidification des eaux de surface des océans. L'océan Austral est particulièrement vulnérable à ces conséquences en raison de ses basses températures et de sa productivité primaire saisonnière élevée. La présente thèse de doctorat a comme objectif d’analyser le système des carbonates, en particulier l'état de l’acidification des océans, dans le détroit de Gerlache et dans la zone polaire de la région de la Terre Adélie. Ces deux régions présentent des hydrodynamiques différents et, par conséquent, devraient présenter des différences dans la variabilité de leur système carbonaté. À partir des données du programme brésilien NAUTILUS et du programme français MINERVE, la dynamique du système des carbonates a été évaluée dans ces régions de 2015 à 2017. Les résultats sont présentés sous la forme d'articles scientifiques qui ont été assemblés pour structurer cette thèse. Le détroit de Gerlache présentait les plus grandes variations spatiales des propriétés du système des carbonates avec des conditions potentiellement acides durant l'été austral. En comparaison, la zone polaire de Terre Adélie présente des variations interannuelles et spatiales plus importantes associées aux zones frontales. En raison de ses conditions géographiques et hydrodynamiques, le détroit de Gerlache est actuellement plus vulnérable à l'acidification des océans que la région de la Terre Adélie. / The intensification of the greenhouse effect due to increasing atmospheric CO 2 concentrations could be higher if not for the ocean’s important role as a sink for atmospheric CO 2 . A consequence of the ocean’s capacity for buffering CO 2 is the ocean acidification of sea surface waters. The Southern Ocean is particularly vulnerable to these consequences due to its low temperatures and high seasonal primary productivity. The present Ph.D. thesis focus on the analysis of the carbonate system, particularly the ocean acidification state, in the Gerlache Strait and the polar zone off the Adelie Land region. These two regions present different hydrodynamics and, consequently, are expected to present differences in their carbonate system variability. Using data sets from the Brazilian NAUTILUS programme and the French MINERVE programme, the carbonate system dynamic was assessed in these regions from 2015 to 2017. The results are presented as scientific articles, which were assembled to structure this thesis. The Gerlache Strait showed the largest spatial variations of carbonate system properties with potentially acidic conditions during austral summer. In comparison, the polar zone off Adelie Land larger inter-annual and spatial variations associated with frontal zones. Due to its geographical and hydrodynamic conditions, the Gerlache Strait is currently more vulnerable to ocean acidification than the off Adelie Landregion.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / O Oceano Austral é a região oceânica de maior extensão em que os macronutrientes necessários à produção primária permanecem em níveis elevados por todo ano. Essa condição é conhecida como High Nutrient Low Clorophyll (HNLC) e é determinada, em grande parte, pela relativa escassez de micronutrientes, particularmente o ferro. Diversos experimentos comprovaram que a entrada de ferro neste sistema intensifica a produção biológica, aumentando a fixação do carbono e, eventualmente, sua exportação para águas profundas. Este fenômeno recebeu muita atenção nos últimos 20 anos devido a sua possível influencia no clima, via ciclo do carbono. A relação inversa entre concentração de CO2 na atmosfera e o fluxo de poeira mineral observados em registros glaciais da Antártica Central sugere que a deposição atmosférica pode ser uma importante via para o aporte de micronutrientes. Porém, a contribuição da deposição de poeira mineral para a produção primária nesta região permanece para ser demonstrada e seu possível papel no sistema climático ainda não é conclusivo. No caso do setor Atlântico do Oceano Austral, que recebe influência da Patagônia, os baixos fluxos modernos de poeira mineral e a baixa solubilidade do ferro associado à estrutura dos alumíniossilicato levam muitos autores a postular que fontes oceânicas de micronutrientes sejam mais determinantes. Faltam, no entanto, evidências experimentais. Neste trabalho, abordamos o estudo da fertilização do setor Atlântico do Oceano Austral pela poeira da Patagônia utilizando duas ferramentas: (1) o sensoriamento remoto orbital de aerossóis minerais e clorofila-a em escala interanual; e (2) um experimento de fertilização, com poeira da Patagônia, realizado na Passagem de Drake, considerando fluxos estimados para a era moderna e para o último glacial. Após doze dias de bioensaio, os tratamentos de adição de poeira mostraram a elevação da clorofila-a e da abundância de células em níveis acima dos controles. Níveis intermediários e maiores de adição não diferiram entre si na intensidade de resposta biológica, separando-se apenas da menor adição. Esses resultados indicam que a poeira da Patagônia, mesmo nos fluxos atuais, é capaz de prover os micronutrientes escassos na coluna dágua, com potencial para deflagrar aumentos significativos de biomassa. Através da análise por sensoriamento remoto, identificamos uma região de alta correlação entre poeira e clorofila-a, que está localizada entre a Frente Subtropical e a Frente Polar, se estendendo da Argentina ao sul da África. Esta região difere das águas ao sul da Frente Polar pela menor profundidade da camada de mistura, menor concentração de silicatos, baixa biomassa de diatomáceas e, estima-se, maior estresse fisiológico devido à escassez de ferro e menor aporte oceânico deste nutriente. Em conjunto, essas características parecem criar condições que tornam a resposta biológica mais sensível à deposição de poeira mineral. Estes resultados lançam nova luz sobre o controle atual da produção primária na região e sobre a hipótese da regulação climática pelo fitoplâncton no Oceano Austral, mediado pela deposição de poeira da Patagônia. / The Southern Ocean is the larger ocean region where the macronutrients needed for primary production remain in high levels through the year. This condition is known as High Nutrient Low Chlorophyll (HNLC) and is conditioned, largely, by the relative shortage of micronutrients, particularly iron. Several experiments proved that the supply of iron to this system enhances biological production, increasing carbon fixation and, eventually, its exportation to deep waters. This phenomenon received much attention in the last 20 years due to its possible influence in the climate, through carbon cycle. The inverse relationship between the atmospheric CO2 concentration and the mineral dust flux observed on the Central Antarctic glacial records suggest that atmospheric deposition may be an important source for the supply of micronutrients. However, the contribution of mineral dust deposition for the primary production in this region remains to be demonstrated and its possible hole in the climate system its not yet conclusive. In the case of Atlantic Southern Ocean, thats influenced by Patagonia, the low modern flows of mineral dust and the low iron solubility associated with aluminum-silicate structure led many authors to state that oceanic sources of micronutrients are more determinants. However, experimental evidence are lacking. In the present work, we approach the study of fertilization of Atlantic Southern Ocean by Patagonian dust employing two different tools: (1) orbital remote sensing of mineral aerosols and chlorophyll-a on inter-annual scale; and (2) a fertilization experiment with Patagonian dust, carried through in Drake Passage, considering estimated flux for the modern era and for the last glacial. After twelve days of bioassay, the dust addition treatments showed increase on chlorophyll-a and cell abundance beyond controls levels. Intermediary and higher levels of addition didnt differ between each other regarding the intensity of biological response, separating only of the lower addition treatment. These results indicate that even modern Patagonia dust flux is capable of providing micronutrients that are scarce in the water column, with potential to deflagrate a bloom. Through remote sensing analysis we have identified a region with high correlation between dust and chlorophyll-a, thats located between the Subtropical Front and the Polar Front, extending from Argentina to south of Africa. This region differs from waters south of the Polar Front by means of a deeper mixed layer, lower silicate concentrations, low diatom biomass and, is estimated, greater iron physiological stress and lower iron oceanic supply. Together, these properties seem to create conditions to which biological response would be more sensible to dust deposition. These results cast new light over controls on modern primary production in the region and over the phytoplankton climatic regulation in the Southern Ocean, mediated by Patagonian dust deposition.

A complexa interação que ocorre entre os processos oceânicos e atmosféricos no Oceano Austral afeta a circulação oceânica global em diferentes camadas. O Mar de Weddell e o Mar de Ross possuem reconhecida importância na formação da Água de Fundo Antártica (AABW). O objetivo principal deste trabalho é caracterizar as massas de água dos Mares de Weddell e Ross, através dos dados mais recentes de reanálise oceânica SODA (Simple Ocean Data Assimilation). Através da técnica de separação de massas de água Análise Multiparamétrica Ótima (AMO) foi possível a identificação de 3 principais massas de água no Mar de Ross: Água Profunda Circumpolar Superior (UCDW), Água Profunda Circumpolar Inferior (LCDW) e Água de Plataforma de Baixa Salinidade (LSSW). A UCDW foi a que apresentou a maior variabilidade, não atingindo a Plataforma de gelo do MR durante os anos de 1950-1974. No Mar de Weddell foi possível a identificação das seguintes massas de água: Água Profunda Cálida (WDW), Água Profunda do Mar de Weddell (WSDW) e Água de Fundo do Mar de Weddell (WSBW). A WDW atingiu valores >70% à 800m. A WSDW possui em seu núcleo valores > 90% entre 2000 e 3500m. A WSBW, apresenta ~100% em profundidades > 4000m. / The complex interaction that occurs between the oceanic and atmospheric processes in the Southern Ocean affects global ocean circulation in different layers. The Weddell and Ross Seas have recognized importance in the formation of Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW). This work aims to characterize the water masses of the Weddell and Ross Seas, using the latest ocean data reanalysis SODA (Simple Ocean Data Assimilation). Through the water masses separation technique, Optimum Multiparameter Analysis (OMP), it was possible to identify three main water masses in Ross Sea: Upper Circumpolar Deep Water (UCDW), Lower Circumpolar Deep Water (LCDW) and Low Salinity Shelf Water (LSSW). UCDW showed the greatest variability, not reaching the Ross Sea Ice Shelf during the years 1950-1974. It was possible to identify the following water masses in Weddell Sea: Warm Deep Water (WDW), Weddell Sea Deep Water (WSDW) and Weddell Sea Bottom Water (WSBW). WDW reached values up to 70% in 800m. WSDW has in its core values > 90% between 2000 and 3500m. WSBW presents a contribution up to 100% at depths > 4000m.

Submitted by Biblioteca de Pós-Graduação em Geoquímica BGQ (bgq@ndc.uff.br) on 2016-03-28T16:36:04Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação - Beatriz Andrade da Silva Marques.pdf: 4181094 bytes, checksum: 0f82a71603a769606e160fbeabb2e770 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-03-28T16:36:04Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação - Beatriz Andrade da Silva Marques.pdf: 4181094 bytes, checksum: 0f82a71603a769606e160fbeabb2e770 (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Universidade Federal Fluminense. Instituto de Química. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Geociências-Geoquímica. Niterói, RJ / O vulcanismo é um potencial agente fertilizador de via eólica para os oceanos. Para as últimas décadas, o sensoriamento remoto tem sido uma ferramenta importante no sentido de avaliar em tempo quase-real alterações de parâmetros nos oceanos durante os episódios de erupção vulcânica, em geral com alta resolução temporal e espacial. Evidências experimentais ainda são pouco reportadas, sobretudo para o hemisfério sul. Este trabalho investiga a resposta biológica decorrente do aporte das cinzas expelidas durante o evento eruptivo de 2011 do complexo vulcânico andino Puyehue-Cordón Caulle em águas do Atlântico Sul / Oceano Austral. Duas abordagens foram empregadas no estudo: (1) sensoriamento remoto orbital; e (2) experimento de fertilização em microcosmo. A investigação feita por meio de sensoriamento remoto utilizou os parâmetros satelitais Espessura Óptica de Aerossol (AOT), Concentração de Clorofila-a (CHL-a) e Temperatura da Superfície do Mar (SST), aquisitados pelo sensor MODIS/Aqua e acessados através do portal Ocean Color mantido pelo OBPG/NASA. O contexto pós-erupção foi avaliado comparando os valores dos parâmetros para o ano (2011) com o valor da série histórica criada com dados de 2002 à 2010. O bioensaio de fertilização foi realizado com as cinzas vulcânicas do evento eruptivo em questão, com tréplicas do controle e outros três tratamentos, distintos em massa de cinzas inserida, em águas coletadas no centro da Passagem de Drake. Os resultados obtidos a partir das duas abordagens deste trabalho, sensoriamento remoto e bioensaio, não são taxativos sobre o acoplamento entre a deposição das cinzas da erupção do complexo vulcânico Puyehue-Cordón Caulle e a possível ocorrência de um evento de fertilização oceânica. Através da análise por sensoriamento remoto é possível notar para o período de intensificação dos ventos de oeste do mesmo ano – primavera-verão – que há picos nas medidas de espessura óptica da atmosfera e de concentração de clorofila, que atingem valores maiores que a média histórica. Isto indica que houve aporte de material continental e que este foi suficiente para propiciar maior desenvolvimento algal no oceano. Estes resultados indicam que a poeira mineral, constituída por material de erosão continental com a contribuição dos depósitos de composições distintas de cinzas expelidas nas diversas erupções andinas, é capaz de prover micronutrientes escassos na coluna d’água ao fitoplâncton, com aumento de biomassa algal de uma comunidade fitoplanctônica não limitada por outros parâmetros (condições de irradiação suficiente, temperaturas menos baixas, camadas de mistura mais rasas e pressão de predação menos intensa). A hipótese também poderia esclarecer a falta de resultados conclusivos do bioensaio feito apenas com as cinzas, sem qualquer beneficiamento de outras fontes continentais / Volcanism is a potential agent for fertilizing by wind the oceans. In the last decades, remote sensing has been an important tool that allows evaluations of near-real-time changes in oceanographic parameters during episodes of volcanic eruptions, in general with high temporal and spatial resolution. Experimental evidences are still poorly reported, especially for the southern hemisphere. This work investigates the biological response resulting from the input of ash expelled during the 2011 eruptive event of the Andean volcanic complex Puyehue-Cordón Caulle over waters of the Atlantic Ocean / Southern Ocean. Two approaches were employed in the study: (1) remote sensing; and (2) fertilization experiment. The research carried out by means of remote sensing, used the satellite parameters Aerosol Optical Thickness (AOT), Concentration of Chlorophyll-a (CHL-a) and Sea Surface Temperature (SST), acquired by MODIS / Aqua and accessed through the Ocean Color portal maintained by OBPG / NASA. The context of post-eruption was assessed by comparing the values of the parameters for the year (2011) with the value of climatology created with data from 2002 to 2010. The fertilization bioassay was performed with volcanic ash from the considered eruption event, with rejoinders of four treatments, different in volume, in water collected in the Drake Passage. The results from the two approaches this work, remote sensing and bioassay, are not exhaustive of the coupling between the deposition of ash from the eruption of the Puyehue-Cordón volcanic complex Caulle and the possible occurrence of an ocean fertilization event. Through remote sensing analysis it is possible to note that, with the intensification period of westerly winds of the same year - spring and summer, there are peaks in aerosol optical thickness measurements of the atmosphere and in concentration of chlorophyll, which reach values higher than the historical average. This indicates that there has been input of continental material, and that this was sufficient to provide greater algal development in the ocean. These results indicate that the mineral dust, formed by continental erosion material with the contribution of deposits of different compositions of ash expelled in several Andean rash, is capable of providing scarce micronutrients in the water column to phytoplankton, with an increase of algal biomass in a phytoplankton community not limited by other parameters (sufficient irradiation conditions, less low temperatures, shallower mixing layers and less intense predation pressure). The hypothesis could also explain the lack of conclusive bioassay results done only with the ashes without any contribution of other continental sources

Le stade juvénile chez les animaux demeure souvent une période mystérieuse aux yeux des scientifiques. La survie juvénile est pourtant un facteur déterminant du futur des populations. Les animaux juvéniles sont connus pour leur mortalité importante durant les premiers mois après l’indépendance et leur taux de survie augmente avec l’âge. La théorie suppose d’une part que les juvéniles ont des capacités de survie moindres que celles des adultes. Ils seraient peu efficaces dans leur recherche de nourriture et auraient besoin d’une période d’apprentissage pour être capables de supporter les couts associés à la reproduction. De plus, des facteurs proximaux telles que les fluctuations environnementales et la compétition affectent également la survie des juvéniles. Des études sur les oiseaux terrestres, ont permis d’obtenir de nombreuses informations grâce à la possibilité de faire des observations directes et récemment des études télémétriques. Cependant collecter des données en milieu marin s’avère compliqué, en particulier lorsque l’on s’intéresse aux juvéniles. Les oiseaux marins longévifs ont en commun la longue durée de leur période d’immaturité (jusqu’à plus de 10 ans). Les jeunes, à l’indépendance, se dispersent seuls en mer durant plusieurs années, ne revenant à terre que pour se reproduire une fois adulte. Ainsi, les suivre durant leurs premiers mois afin de comprendre leurs comportements et leur écologie alimentaire constitue un véritable défi. Dans ce contexte, cette thèse a pour objectif d’élucider au moins en partie le mystère de la vie juvénile des oiseaux marins. Grâce à des technologies bio-télémétriques nous avons pu suivre par satellite un large panel de juvéniles de neuf espèces proches d’albatros et pétrels (procellariiformes) se reproduisant dans les Terres Australes et Antarctiques Françaises de l’Océan Austral : les îles Crozet, Kerguelen et Amsterdam. Les trajectoires ont été analysées grâce à différentes méthodes statistiques permettant de décrire les mouvements, le comportement alimentaire et les répartitions spatiales des jeunes après leur envol, le tout en lien avec les conditions environnementales. Les résultats obtenus sont discutés à la lumière de la comparaison avec les adultes des mêmes espèces. Grâce à ce jeu de données j’ai étudié les stratégies de dispersion des jeunes inexpérimentés qui quittent le nid. J’ai montré que ces stratégies ainsi que la proportion d’inné les contrôlant sont très variables selon les espèces et suivent ou non celles des parents selon les espèces. Le taux de variabilité dans les stratégies juvéniles peut refléter leur potentielle plasticité et leur capacité à répondre à des changements de l’environnement et in fine affecter la dynamique des populations. Par ailleurs, l’analyse de trajectoires de juvéniles de grand albatros a révélé qu’en plus de leurs capacités innées ils apprennent très rapidement les compétences de base requises pour survivre en mer puis optimiser leur recherche alimentaire. Cependant des différences perdurent par rapport aux adultes, suggérant que d’autres comportements non-observables (via nos données) nécessitent une période d’apprentissage plus longue. Enfin, quelle que soit la stratégie adoptée, elle semble en partie contrainte par la compétition intraspécifique avec les individus plus âgés puisque les juvéniles limitent celle-ci via une ségrégation spatiale. Ce dernier point souligne le besoin de prendre en compte la répartition spatio-temporelle âge-dépendante des espèces lorsque l’on veut mettre en œuvre des mesures de protection pour ces espèces. Ces travaux apportent de nouvelles connaissances sur plusieurs des aspects majeurs de l’écologie en mer d’individus inexpérimentés cherchant leur nourriture seuls dans un environnement hautement imprévisible. Nous apprenons ici comment de l’instinct et de l’expérience découlent des stratégies de vie juvéniles qui permettent aux oiseaux de survivre dans un environnement inconnu. / The juvenile stage of animals is often much of a mystery to scientists. Moreover, juvenile survival is known to be a strong determinant for the future of a population. Indeed, juvenile animals are known to face high mortality during the first months after independence, with survival rates improving with age. One ultimate hypothesis implies that juveniles have a lower survival rate than adults because of their lack of experience. Thus they are initially poor foragers and require a learning period (immaturity) to improve their efficiency before being able to bear breeding and its associated energetic costs. Proximal factors also influence juvenile survival, such as environmental fluctuations and competition. Studies on terrestrial animals have provided useful information thanks to the possibility of direct observation and, recently, bio-logging technologies. However, collecting data in the marine environment is more difficult, particularly when juveniles are concerned. Long-lived marine species such as seabirds have an extensive immature period extending from a few years up to more than ten years. The offspring of these species will usually leave their natal site and disperse at sea for several years before returning to breed on land, most of the time at their place of birth. This makes it difficult to obtain direct observations, and so documenting their first journey at sea to learn more about their behavioural and foraging ecology is a challenge. In this context, this PhD aims to unravel at least part of the mystery of juvenile seabirds’ early life by investigating the first months at sea of newly fledged individuals from several long-lived species of procellariiformes. Using state of the art advancements in biotelemetry, I was able to follow, at sea, by satellite a large set of juveniles from nine closely related species of albatross and petrel breeding in the French Southern Territories of the Southern Ocean : Crozet, Kerguelen and Amsterdam Islands. Some of these species had never been tracked before. Trajectories were analysed using various new statistical methods that allowed movement strategies, alongside foraging behaviour and spatial distributions, to be described, all in tight link with environmental conditions. The findings were discussed in the light of a comparison with adults of the same species. Using this huge dataset I first examined the dispersal strategies of young birds that had left their nest and were totally independent from their parents. I showed that the strategies, as well as the amount of innate information controlling them are highly variable depending on species. Their movements take them in various habitats following or not the parental strategies. The amount of variability in juvenile strategies is linked to potential plasticity when facing environmental changes. These parameters are related to the history life trait of species, and might affect demography and population dynamics. In addition, by analysing juvenile wandering albatross tracks I showed that although they quickly learn the basics of flight and foraging optimization required to survive at sea, behavioural differences with adults persist in time, suggesting that non-observable behaviours need a longer period of learning and memorisation. Finally, whatever the strategy adopted, it seems to be driven in part by intraspecific competition since juveniles mitigate competition with older birds by segregating spatially. This last point highlights the crucial need of acknowledging age-related distribution when making management decisions to protect seabird populations. This work provides new insights about several major aspects of the at-sea ecology of naïve individuals foraging alone in a highly unpredictable environment. We learn here how instinct followed by experience shape specific early life strategies that allow young birds to deal with environmental conditions and interspecific competition so as to be able to survive.

Durant les dernières décennies, la Péninsule Antarctique a été identifiée comme étant la région où le réchauffement récent est le plus marqué dans l’Hémisphère Sud. Cependant, au-delà de la période instrumentale, la variabilité climatique Holocène de cette partie du globe est en grande partie inconnue. Cette absence de données limite notre capacité à évaluer les l’amplitude des changements actuels dans le contexte de la variabilité historique ainsi que les mécanismes de forçage sous-jacents. Nous avons ainsi ciblé nos analyses sur des enregistrements sédimentaires prélevés à l’Est et à l’Ouest de la Péninsule Antarctique, avec pour objectif d’étendre les connaissances spatiales et temporelles des conditions de l’océan de surfaces dans ce secteur de l’Antarctique au cours du dernier siècle, du dernier millénaire ainsi que durant l’Holocène. La méthodologie de cette thèse est basée sur une comparaison multi-proxies qui inclut, comme outils principaux, les assemblages des diatomées et les biomarqueurs spécifiques de diatomées (HBIs). Nous avons pu ainsi documenter la réponse régionale environnementale aux variations climatiques à différentes échelles de temps, et définir les mécanismes forçant sur la variabilité des conditions d’océan de surface ainsi que la formation du couvert de banquise en Péninsule Antarctique. La comparaison de nos enregistrements avec des données issues des carottes de glace, a permis de mettre en évidence le rôle important des changements d’intensité des cellules atmosphériques sur la dynamique de la circulation océanique, la durée du cycle saisonnier de banquise et la productivité siliceuse. / The Antarctic Peninsula has been identified during the last decades as the region from the Southern Hemisphere which is the most affected by the recent warming. However, beyond the instrumental period, the Holocene climate variability of this area is largely unknown, limiting our ability to evaluate the current changes within the context of historical variability and underpin the underlying forcing mechanisms. We focused our analysis on sedimentary sequences from the Eastern and Western side of the Antarctic Peninsula, in order to expand the spatial and temporal knowledge of sea-surface conditions over the last century, the last millennium and throughout the Holocene in this Antarctic area. The inferences are based on a multi-proxy comparison mainly using diatom assemblages and diatom specific biomarkers (HBIs). We documented the regional environmental response to climate changes at different time scales and described the forcing mechanisms on the sea-surface conditions and sea ice cover variability in Antarctic Peninsula. Comparing our results with ice core data allowed us to highlight the large impact of atmospheric forcings on the oceanic circulation, the seasonal sea ice dynamics and the siliceous productivity.

All previous taxonomic studies on the Ectemnorhinus group of weevils have been based primarily on morphological data. While these studies are invaluable, some questions can only be addressed adequately through molecular studies. This is especially true when studying the genetic relationships and phylogeograpic patterns of taxa endemic to the South Indian Ocean Province (SIP) biotas that have long been controversial. The Ectemnorhinus group of genera is a monophyletic unit of weevils endemic to the region. The present study focused mainly on the Ectemnorhinus group of weevils found on the Prince Edward Islands archipelago (PEIA). The mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I gene was targeted when investigating relationships among members of this weevil group. On the PEIA, it is important to note that Marion Island (MI) and Prince Edward Island (PEI) differ in terms of alien invasive species, such as the introduced house mouse Mus musculus and in conservation management strategies. Since emergence, a series of volcanic and glaciation events have occurred on Marion Island, whilst Prince Edward Island has remained largely unaffected by glaciation. Phylogenetic analyses revealed the presence of two genetically and morphometrically distinct species of Ectemnorhinus weevils on PEI, whilst evidence for a single species, comprising diverse genetically discrete populations was found on MI. Based on these results, the species unique to PEI has been designated E. kuscheli n. sp., whilst the present study confirmed the synonymy between E. similis and E. marioni, the two species originally described from MI. Ectemnorhinus kucheli appears to be restricted to PEI, whereas E. similis occurs on both MI and PEI. When investigating the population dynamics of the Ectemnorhinus weevils on the PEIA, the data indicated that PEI was the first of the two islands of the PEIA to be colonized by Ectemnorhinus weevils, at an estimated time of coalescence of approximately 0.3116 million years ago (MYA). The PEI population then acted as the source population for the colonization of MI by Ectemnorhinus weevils some time before the last glaciation, approximately 10 000 to 35 000 years ago. The separation by distance of the PEI Ectemnorhinus weevils from those on MI then gave rise to two species by allopatric speciation on MI. During the last glaciations, MI was extensively glaciated with only the southwestern corner of the island being free of ice. This extensive glaciation of MI would have resulted in the eradication of all E. similis on MI except for those occurring on the ice-free southwestern corner of the island. At the end of the last glacial maximum, when the ice started to melt, the coastal areas of MI emerged first from beneath the ice and were available for re-colonization by weevils. The movement of weevils that were isolated in the south-western corner of MI, along the coastal areas of the island, was assisted by strong, frequent south-western winds. Subsequent, post-glacial volcanism during the Holocene was then responsible for the fragmentation of the new migrants, resulting in small population pockets surrounded by fresh, uninhabitable lava and subsequent divergence of each populations. When the Holocene black lava became re-colonizeable, the weevils from the different isolated populations migrated to the remainder of the island. Currently, members of the different genetically-identified populations occur in sympatry and in some cases even on the same plant, but no noticeable geneflow was detected between them. It is thus suggested that the time of isolation, before the post-glacial black lava during Holocene became hospitable, was sufficiently long and the populations sufficiently small that a number of genetically-discrete populations arose. Consequently, the present study recognises two genetically discrete populations of E. kucheli on PEI and seven discrete E. similis populations on MI that are morphologically indistinct. When examining the relationships among 13 species from five different islands within the South Indian Ocean Province (SIP) that are representative of 22 populations within the genera Palirhoeus, Bothrometopus and Ectemnorhinus, there was little support for separating the genus Palirhoeus from Bothrometopus, and no support for the morphologically-delineated species groups currently recognized within Bothrometopus. The present study shows that colonization of the Prince Edward Islands is likely to have occurred repeatedly from other islands within the SIP and that Bothrometopus parvulus on the PEIA comprises two species that are not sister taxa. The second novel con-generic species was therefore designated Bothrometopus huntleyi n. sp. and examination of the genetically identified specimens resulted in the indentification of distinguishing morphological characteristics. The analyses indicated that B. huntleyi arose approximately 0.5 million years ago from a high-altitude population that is still present on MI. The first major intra- and inter-island dispersal event occurred ~0.338 MYA, coinciding with the glaciation-free second volcanic stage on MI. Apart from this early inter-island colonisation, only one other between-island dispersal event, corresponding with the glaciation-free seventh volcanic stage, was detected. Genetically discrete weevil complexes on each of the islands of the PEIA together with the low levels of inter-island gene flow reaffirm the need to control alien invasive mice, which are restricted to MI, and which prey on these weevil species. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Zoology and Entomology / unrestricted

Holistic studies of mammalian life history factors and their consequences on population demography require an intensive, multifaceted field methodology and effort over long temporal scales. A 25-year longitudinal mark-recapture experiment on southern elephant seals, Mirounga leonina, at Subantarctic Marion Island provide such a foundation for demographic analyses and relevant methodology advancement. Two gaps in the methodology related to life history and population demographic research are, the absence of large samples of known mass individuals, and an inability to identify mother-pup relatedness. A novel three-dimensional photogrammetric technique is designed here that allows for mass estimation of large samples of southern elephant seals in the field. An effective temporary marking technique for unweaned pups is implemented that allows for identification of large samples of pups with known mothers prior to the maternal bond being severed at weaning. These known pups can then be marked with more robust tags and relatedness information is preserved long-term. Thus, mass estimates can now be applied as covariates in modelling analyses to address questions of, for example, maternal investment, kinship associated behaviour, and the consequences thereof on survival and reproductive parameters. The state change in the Marion Island southern elephant seal population from decrease to stabilisation/increase is shown to have resulted from improved survivorship in both juvenile and adult female age classes. Male seals of all ages did not indicate improved survivorship following the period of decline. The inflexion in survivorship is identified as 1994, whence improved survivorship of juvenile seals preceded that of young adult females. This inflexion in survivorship is postulated to have resulted in a population trend inflexion around 1998. Female southern elephant seals do not show evidence of actuarial senescence, but reproductive senescence is apparent after 12 years of age. A longterm reproductive cost (reduced breeding effort) is associated with early primiparity (age three) as compared with later primiparity (4- 5- or 6-year-old). The mean proportion of 3-year-old breeders has not increased after 1994 as has been hypothesized in previous studies. Contrary to previous assumptions, females do not as a rule breed every year. Annually interrupted breeding efforts are more common than consecutive breeding efforts. No difference in the proportions of interrupted versus uninterrupted breeding efforts was identified between periods of population decline and stabilisation/increase. Longevity as predicted by survival estimates exceeds the observed frequencies. This study provides unique longevity and fertility schedules for the species. The improved survivorship, reproductive senescence and breeding schedules of female southern elephant seals in this population provide groundwork for reevaluation of previous studies and their conclusions. The addition of relatedness and body condition information will allow for sophisticated multistate modelling of population demography in future studies. However, analytical procedures and techniques employed need to be meticulously designed and thoroughly thought through to avoid mis-interpretation of biological data. In addition to a multistate single species analytical approach, the importance of an ecosystem approach to species population demographic studies is highlighted through the augmenting of data on relevant potential drivers of population change, such as killer whales, Orcinus orca. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2009. / Zoology and Entomology / unrestricted