Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The use of phytase enzymes to liberate phosphorus and other phytate bound nutrients in monogastric animal diets are becoming common practice and several commercial phytase enzymes are available on the market. Phytase manufacturers supply nutritionists with matrix values for the specific phytase, enabling nutritionists to effectively decrease the dietary concentrations of phosphorus and nutrients during diet formulation. A 32 day experiment was conducted with 5120 broiler chicks fed diets supplemented with different commercial phytase enzymes (1000 FYT or 1500 FYT HiPhos/kg diet, 1500 FYT Ronozyme/kg diet, 500 FTU Natuphos/kg diet or 500 FTU Phyzyme/kg diet) at levels recommended by the manufacturers and with similar phosphorus equivalence. The nutrient content of the diets supplemented with 500 FTU Natuphos, 500 FTU Phyzyme 1500 Ronozyme and 1000 FYT HiPhos were reduced according to the matrix values of 1000 FYT/kg HiPhos, whilst the diet supplemented with 1500 FYT HiPhos /kg diet was reduced according to the matrix values 1500 FYT HiPhos. The objectives of this study were threefold: (i) to confirm the matrix value for a newly developed phytase (HiPhos, DSM Nutritional Products, Basel, Switzerland), at two different inclusion levels, using weight gain and bone parameters of broilers as response criteria; (ii) to compare production and bone parameters of broilers reared on three different commercial phytases to broilers reared on HiPhos (iii) to investigate the effect that supplementation of these four phytases has on water intake, carcass characteristics, organ weights and gastrointestinal tract morphology of broilers. The matrix values for 1500 FYT HiPhos were confirmed by using live weight gain as response criteria, but results for bone parameters were insufficient in confirming the matrix values. The matrix values for 1000 FYT HiPhos were confirmed by the results for tibia weight and tibia strength, but results for weight gain were insufficient to confirm the values. The matrix values for 1000 FYT HiPhos and 1500 FYT HiPhos could not be confirmed nor disproved, nevertheless results from the current trial proved diets supplemented with HiPhos to be more economically viable when compared to the standard commercial broiler diet. Total feed and water intake were not influenced by phytase supplementation. Production parameters (live weight, feed intake, feed conversion ratio, European production efficiency factor and average daily gain) and bone parameters (tibia strength, fat free tibia weight, fat free tibia ash and mineral content) did not differ between phytase treatments and therefore all the commercial phytases were equally effective to the HiPhos phytase. Furthermore, results indicate that the investigated phytases had no effect on internal organ weight or gastrointestinal tract morphology in broilers. Overall the results obtained from the study indicate that the use of phytase as feed additive has no negative effects on growth performance, carcass characteristics or bone parameters. No major differences for the production and bone parameters were observed between broilers supplemented with different phytases. Therefore the costs of these phytases can be the determining factor when nutritionists decide which commercial phytase to use. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die gebruik van fitase ensieme in die diëte van enkelmaagdiere om fitaat-gebonde fosfor en voedingstowwe vry te stel, word al hoe meer algemeen in die bedryf en verskeie kommersiële fitase ensieme is in die mark beskikbaar. Die ensiemvervaardigers verskaf die fitases se matryswaardes aan voedingskundiges wat hul in staat stel om die fosfor- en nutrientvlakke in die dieet effektief te verminder. ´n Studie met 5120 braaikuikens was vir 32 dae uitgevoer. Die braaikuiken diëte was met verskillende kommersiële fitase ensieme (1000 FYT & 1500 FYT HiPhos/kg dieet, 1500 FYT Ronozyme/kg dieet, 500 FTU Natuphos/kg dieet of 500 FTU Phyzyme/kg dieet) aangevul. Die nutrientvlakke van die diëte wat met fitase aangevul was, was verminder volgens die matryswaardes van 1000 FYT of 1500 FYT HiPhos fitase. Die doelstellings van hierdie studie was drievoudig: (i) om die matryswaardes van ´n nuwe fitase (HiPhos, DSM Nutritional Products, Basel, Switzerland) by twee verskillende insluitingsvlakke te bevestig deur massa toename en been parameters as reaksie maatstawwe te gebruik (ii) om produksie- en been parameters van braaikuikens, wat een van drie kommersiële fitase ensieme as voerbymiddel ontvang het, met dié van braaikuikens wat die nuwe ensiem gevoer was te vergelyk (iii) om die effek wat fitase op water inname, karkaseienskappe, orgaan massas en spysverteringskanaal morfologie het te bestudeer. Die matryswaardes vir 1500 FYT HiPhos was bevestig deur lewendige massa toename as respons kriteria te gebruik, maar resultate vir die been parameters was onvoldoende om die matryswaardes te bevestig. Die matryswaardes vir 1000 FYT HiPhos was slegs bevestig deur die resultate vir die breeksterktes van die tibias, maar resultate vir massa toename was onvoldoende om die matryswaardes te bevestig. Dus kon die matryswaardes vir die HiPhos fitase nie bevestig of verkeerd bewys word nie. Desondanks het die resultate in die huidige proef bewys dat diëte wat met HiPhos aangevul was meer ekonomies as die kommersiële braaikuiken dieet is. Totale voer- en water-inname was nie deur die aanvulling van fitase beïnvloed nie. Produksie parameters (lewendige massa, voeromset, die Europese produksie doeltreffendheids faktor, gemiddelde daaglikse toename) en been parameters (tibia breeksterkte, vet vrye tibia massa, vet vrye tibia as en mineraal-inhoud) het nie verskil tussen die fitase behandelings nie en dus was al die kommersiële fitases ewe effektief. Vanuit die studie is getoon dat die gebruik van fitase as ´n voerbymiddels geen negatiewe effek op groei, karkas eienskappe of been parameters het nie en dat fitase ook nie die orgaan gewigte of die spysverteringskanaal morfologie van braaikuikens beïnvloed nie. Geen groot verskille in produksieen been parameters was waargeneem tussen hoenders wat verskillende fitases as voerbymiddel ontvang het nie, daarom kan die koste van die ensiem die bepalende faktor wees as voedingkundiges die keuse maak tussen hierdie kommersiele fitases.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Paraffin, also called kerosene is used by small-scale soya bean farmers in some parts of Africa as a pest repellent. The repellent action is claimed to be effective against parasites during seed germination and development of the seedlings. Seeds are immersed in commercial paraffin for a few seconds and sown in the soil immediately. This method raised some questions about possible negative effects on the seed after the imbibition process but also on humans and animals consuming the plants and seeds. Experiments were designed to investigate whether this practice would have negative effects on seed germination and vigour of the resulting seedlings of seven selected crop species. A trial was also carried out to test the effectiveness of paraffin as a pest repellent on canola in a field situation. The collected data were analyzed using STATISTICA, software version 11. Wherever the experiments showed significant interaction or differences within main factors, the means were separated making use of Fischer’s LSD post-hoc analysis at p = 0.05. The first series of experiments was done in the laboratory. It was carried out on seeds of seven crop species: canola (Brassica napus L.), common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), ground nuts (Arachis hypogea L.), maize (Zea mays L.), soya bean (Glycine max L.), sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). In the germination trial, seeds were subjected to a 7X5X4 factorial design treatment with factors Crop species (CS) (see above), Paraffin concentration (PC) (0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% of commercial paraffin diluted with distilled water) and Time of immersion (TOI) (1, 5, 10, and 30 minutes). Treatments were repeated four times. After immersion seeds were dried with water absorbent paper and immediately germinated in 90 mm diameter petri dishes containing two filter papers and 5 ml of distilled water. Germination tests included 10 seeds per replicate and were incubated at a constant temperature of 20°C under dark conditions in an incubator. Findings showed that canola, sunflower and soya bean are paraffin tolerant (>70 % germination), wheat and groundnuts are less tolerant (30% – 70% germination) and beans and maize are intolerant (< 30 % germination). The paraffin had a negative influence on the rate of germination but there were no statistically significant differences between the 25% to 100% paraffin concentrations. Measurements of the quantity of water and of paraffin absorbed were done after seeds of the seven crop species were immersed in 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% paraffin concentrations for 30 minutes. Beans absorbed more water at 100% water and more paraffin at 25% paraffin than the other crop species. The paraffin uptake decreased with the increase of paraffin concentration while water uptake increased with the increase in water percentage. In both cases canola had the lowest uptake. Differential uptake of water and paraffin did not explain the results of the germination test. Seeds of the seven crop species immersed in different paraffin concentrations (0, 25, 50, 75 and 100%) for thirty minutes were dried and then soaked in distilled water for 20 hours. The electrical conductivity (EC) of the liquid was determined by means of an EC meter after 20 hours of soaking. This was done to investigate whether paraffin treatment influenced leaking of electrolytes, which would indicate damage to the cell membranes in the seed. Results showed that sunflower leaked more electrolytes than any other seed, while wheat and maize had lower electrolyte leakage than the other species. This showed that the negative effect of paraffin on the germination of some crop species was unlikely to be due to membrane damage because sunflower seeds that leaked most electrolytes had a high germination percentage while the maize and wheat seeds that leaked little electrolytes, had poor germination after paraffin treatments. The second experiment was conducted in a glasshouse. Seeds of the seven crop species were subjected to the same PC and TOI treatments as described in the germination experiment above but instead of being placed in an incubator to germinate, they were planted in 8cm x 8 cm plastic pots (10 seeds in each) in coarse sand in a glasshouse that was running at approximately 20ºC. The establishment of the seedlings was monitored daily in the glasshouse. The final percentage of establishment was calculated. Three weeks after planting, the seedlings were thinned to one plant per pot. The mean root and stem lengths as well as dry mass of the seedlings was recorded when the seedlings were thinned. The one plant per pot that was retained was harvested six weeks after establishment. Root and stem length and dry mass were determined. Establishment percentage and tolerance indices were calculated. Maize and beans showed the lowest establishment percentages and sunflower scored the highest establishment percentage after treatment with paraffin. The root and stem lengths of the crops were generally unaffected by paraffin treatments. In terms of dry mass paraffin had a significant negative effect on groundnut at three weeks but at six weeks no effect of paraffin on any of the vegetative growth parameters could be observed. The third experiment was run in the microscope laboratory. A test using a confocal and fluorescence microscope was carried out to determine if residues of paraffin could be found in germinating soya bean seeds and seedlings. Specimens collected from the germinating soya bean seed and seedlings were mounted on the fluorescent microscope and stained with a solution of 100 μg.ml-1 Nile Red and observed with LD Plan-Neofluar 60X/0.6. Results showed that paraffin did penetrate the soya bean seed and was translocated within the plant system (endodermis) as the plant grows. The concentrations of paraffin in the tissue were however quite low. The fourth experiment was run on the Langgewens Experimental Farm near Moorreesburg in the Western Cape Province. Forty blocks were spatially grouped into two separate groups. Twenty blocks received the five paraffin treatments replicated four times and the other twenty blocks received the five water treatments also replicated four times. Within each group the treatments were allocated randomly to the plots. The experimental design was a 2X5 Factorial experiment with factors Treatment liquid (distilled water and paraffin) and Time of immersion (0, 1, 5, 10 and 30 minutes) replicated four times. No pesticides were applied to the canola crop. Stand density, leaf area and dry mass were recorded at the first harvest at 12 weeks, and then dry mass was determined at 21weeks. Final yield was determined after 27 weeks when the plots were harvested by means of a combine plot harvester. The stand density, leaf area and dry mass were significantly increased by paraffin treatments at the time of the first harvest. After 21 weeks paraffin treatment had no significant effect on the dry mass production of the canola and the same was true of the final seed yield. . Even though there was no serious attack by pests, the little feeding damage that occurred in the water treated plots and not in the paraffin treated plots, indicate that paraffin may have a repellent effect. Paraffin had no negative effects whatsoever on the growth and yield of canola in this experiment. This study indicates that different crops react differently to seed treatment with paraffin. The results of the fourth experiment indicate that paraffin might be used as pest repellent on certain selected crops but more research is needed on the subject. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Paraffien, ook genoem keroseen, word deur kleinskaalse boere in sekere dele van Afrika gebruik as ‘n pesafweermiddel. Dit word beweer dat die afweeraksie suksesvol is teen parasiete tydens saadontkieming en vroeë saailinggroei. Saad word in kommersiële paraffien gedoop vir ‘n paar sekondes en dan onmiddelik daarna geplant. Die metode skep vrae oor die moontlike negatiewe gevolge op die saad na die imbiberingsproses maar ook op mense en diere wat die plante en sade benut. Eksperimente is beplan om vas te stel of die praktyk negatiewe gevolge op die saadontkieming en groeikragtigheid van die daaropvolgende saailinge van sewe geselekteerde gewasspesies sal hê. ‘n Eksperiment is ook uitgevoer om die effektiwiteit van paraffien as pesafweermiddel op kanola in ‘n veldsituasie te toets. Die data wat ingesamel is is ontleed deur gebruik te maak van STATISTICA, sagteware, uitgawe 11. Waar betekenisvolle interaksies of verskille binne hooffaktore voorgekom het, is die gemiddeldes geskei deur middel van Fischer se LSD post-hoc ontleding by p = 0.05. Die eerste reeks eksperimente is uitgevoer in ‘n laboratorium. Dit is uitgevoer op sade van sewe gewasspesies naamlik . kanola (Brassica napus L.), gewone bone (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), grondbone (Arachis hypogea L.), mielies (Zea mays L.), sojabone (Glycine max L.), sonneblom (Helianthus annuus L.) en koring (Triticum aestivum L.). In die ontkiemingsproef is die sade onderwerp aan ‘n 7X5X4 ewekansige blokontwerp wat faktoriaal gerangskik is met faktore Gewasspesies (CS) (sien hierbo), Paraffien konsentrasie (PC) (0, 25, 50, 75 en 100% van kommersiële paraffien verdun met gedistilleerde water) en Tyd van indompeling (TOI) (1, 5, 10, en 30 minute). Behandelings is vier keer herhaal. Na indompeling is die sade met waterabsorberende papier gedroog en onmiddelik daarna in 90 mm deursneë petribakkies wat twee filtreerpapiere en 5 ml gedistilleerde water bevat het, ontkiem. Tien sade per petribakkie is gebruik en die petribakkies is geïnkubeer by ‘n konstante temperatuur van 20ºC in die donker in ‘n inkubasiekas. Resultate het getoon dat kanola, sonneblom en sojaboon bestand is teen paraffienbehandelings (>70% ontkieming), koring en grondboon is minder bestand (30-70% ontkieming) en mielies en gewone bone is sensitief vir paraffienbehandeling (<30% ontkieming). Die paraffien het oor die algemeen ‘n negatiewe effek op ontkiemingstempo gehad maar daar was geen statisties betekenisvolle verskille tussen die 25% en 100% paraffienbehandelings nie. Die hoeveelheid water en paraffien wat opgeneem is deur sade van die sewe gewasspesies nadat dit in paraffienkonsentrasies van 0, 25, 50, 75 en 100% ingedompel is vir 30 minute, is bepaal. Gewone bone het meer water by die 100% water behandeling en meer paraffien by die 25% paraffien behandeling opgeneem as die ander spesies. Die paraffienopname het afgeneem met toename in paraffienkonsentrasie terwyl wateropname toegeneem het met toenemende waterkonsentrasies. Beide in geval van wateropname en paraffienopname het kanola die minste water opgeneem. Differensiële opname van water en paraffien het nie die resultate van die ontkiemingstoets verklaar nie. Sade van die sewe gewasspesies is in verskillende paraffienkonsentrasies (0, 25, 50, 75 en 100%) gedompel vir 30 minute, gedroog en daarna in gedistilleerde water geweek vir 20 uur. Aan die einde van die 20 uur wekingsperiode is die elektriese konduktiwiteit (EC) van die wekingsvloeistof bepaal deur middel van ‘n EC meter. Dit is gedoen om vas te stel of paraffienbehandeling die uitlek van elektroliete vanuit die saad, wat ‘n aanduiding van beskadigde selmembrane van die saad kan wees, beïnvloed. Resultate het aangedui dat sonneblom die meeste elektroliete vrygestel het en koring en mielies die minste. Dit dui aan dat die negatiewe invloed van paraffien op sommige gewasspesies waarskynlik nie deur membraanbeskadiging veroorsaak is nie omdat sonneblom, wat die meeste elektroliete vrygestel het, die hoogste ontkiemingspersentasie na behandeling met praffien gehad het terwyl mielies en koring, wat die minste elektroliete vrygestel het, baie swak ontkieming gehad het na paraffienbehandeling. Die tweede eksperiment is in ‘n glashuis uitgevoer. Sade van die sewe gewasspesies is onderwerp aan dieselfde paraffienkonsentrasies en tye van indompeling as in die ontkiemingseksperiment hierbo maar in plaas van om die sade in ‘n inkubasiekas te ontkiem, is dit in 8 cm x 8 cm plastiekpotte wat gevul is met growwe sand geplant (10 sade per pot) in ‘n glashuis wat by ‘n konstante temperatuur van ongeveer 20ºC geloop het. Die vestiging van die saailinge in die glashuis is daagliks gemonitor en die finale persentasie van vestiging is bereken. Drie weke na plant is die saailinge uitgedun sodat een per pot oorgebly het. Die uitgedunde saailinge se gemiddelde wortel- en stamlengtes is bepaal asook die gemiddelde droëmassas. Die een plant wat per pot oorgebly het is na ses weke ge-oes en weer is wortel- en stamlengtes bepaal asook die droëmassas. Vestigingspersentasies en toleransie indekse is bereken. Mielies en gewone bone het die laagste vestigingspersentasies getoon en sonneblom die hoogste nadat die gewasse met paraffien behandel is. Die wortel- en stamlengtes van die gewasse was oor die algemeen nie deur paraffienbehandelings beïnvloed nie. In terme van droëmassa het paraffien ‘n negatiewe effek op grondbone gehad drie weke na plant maar na ses weke kon geen invloed van paraffienbehandelings op enige van die vegetatiewe groeiparameters waargeneem word nie. Die derde eksperiment is in ‘n mikroskooplaboratorium uitgevoer. ‘n Konfokale en fluoreserende mikroskoop is gebruik om te bepaal of oorblyfsels van paraffien gevind kan word in ontkiemende sojaboonsade en saailinge. Monsters wat geneem is van die ontkiemende sojaboonsade saailinge is gemonteer op die fluoreserende mikroskoop en gekleur met ‘n oplossing van 100 μg.ml-1 Nile Red oplossing en ge-evalueer met LD Plan-Neofluar 60X/0.6. Resultate het getoon dat paraffien wel die sojaboonsaad kon infiltreer en dat dit ook in die saailinge se endodermis vervoer kon word en opspoorbaar was. Die konsentrasies van paraffien in die weefsel was egter laag. Die vierde eksperiment is uitgevoer op die Langgewens Proefplaas naby Moorreesburg in die Wes-Kaap Provinsie. Veertig blokke is ruimtelik in twee groepe van twintig elk grangskik. Twintig blokke het die vyf paraffienbehandelings ontvang en twintig die vyf gedistilleerde waterbehandelings. Die behandelings is vier keer herhaal. Binne elke blok is die behandelings ewekansig toegeken aan persele. Die proefontwerp was ‘n 2X5 ewekansige geneste blokontwerp (split plot) wat faktoriaal gerangskik is met faktore Behandelingsvloeistof (gedistilleerde water en paraffien) en indompelingstyd (0, 1, 5, 10 and 30 minute). Geen insekdoders is op die kanola toegedien nie. Plantdigtheid, blaaroppervlakte en droëmassa is bepaal tydens die eerste monsterneming 12 weke na plant en daarna is slegs droëmassa bepaal na 21 weke. Na 27 weke is finale oesopbrengs bepaal deur die persele met ‘n perseelstroper te stroop. Plantdigtheid, blaaroppervlakte en droëmassa is betekenisvol verhoog deur paraffienbehandelings na 12 weke. Na 21 weke het die paraffienbehandelings egter geen betekenisvolle invloed op die droëmassa van die plante gehad nie en daar was ook nie verskille ten opsigte van finale oesopbrengs nie. Alhoewel daar nie ernstige insekskade waargeneem is nie, was dit tog duidelik dat die bietjie vreetskade wat in die waterbehandelings voorgekom het, nie in die paraffienbehandelings voorgekom het nie. Dit dui aan dat die paraffien moontlik ‘n afwerende invloed gehad het. Paraffien het geen negatiewe invloed enigsins gehad op die groei en produksie van kanola in hierdie eksperiment nie. Hierdie studie dui aan dat verskillende gewasse verskillend reageer op saadbehandeling met paraffien. Die resultate van die vierde eksperiment dui aan dat paraffien moontlik as ‘n pesafweermiddel op sekere geselekteerde gewasse gebruik kan word maar meer navorsing word benodig op die onderwerp.

A atividade agrícola é muito importante para a economia do Rio Grande do Sul, cuja região alvo deste estudo é sua porção noroeste, representada por seis municípios: São Luiz Gonzaga, Santa Rosa, Cruz Alta, Iraí, Passo Fundo e Marcelino Ramos. Esta região é foco nacional de produção de soja, dependendo fortemente das condições atmosféricas, tanto em escala sinótica quanto climática. Os períodos secos, conhecidos como veranicos, durante a fase de desenvolvimento até a colheita, que acorrem entre outubro e março, acarretam vários prejuízos à região. O objetivo do trabalho é estimar a climatologia de ocorrência de veranicos no NW do RS, no primeiro e quarto trimestres do ano, entre 1978 e 2005 e associá-los a padrões atmosféricos característicos. Verificou-se que o maior número de veranicos ocorre no primeiro trimestre em relação ao quarto, resultado que apresenta correlação direta com o volume médio climatológico de precipitação para esses 2 trimestres. Março e dezembro apresentam mais eventos secos do que os outros meses, o que parece ser resposta direta de menor volume de chuva. Por outro lado, numa análise espacial, Santa Rosa e São Luiz Gonzaga apresentam os maiores números de veranicos, mesmo com médias anuais climatológicas de precipitação superior aos demais municípios. Durante os períodos secos (úmidos) verificou-se o padrão dipolo com base na ROL. Nesses períodos, no sul do Brasil foram observados baixos (altos) valores de ROL, em relação à média climatológica. Sobre o norte e nordeste do Brasil há a inversão das anomalias de ROL, configurando o dipolo. Anomalias de convergência (divergência) em altos níveis são observadas sobre boa parte do sul do Brasil e oceano Atlântico adjacente, durante períodos secos (úmidos), fornecendo desta forma, maior divergência em baixos níveis. A circulação do ar em períodos úmidos (secos) evidencia a intensificação (enfraquecimento) do JBN em direção ao sul do Brasil, contribuindo para o incremento (decréscimo) de chuvas na região. Anomalias negativas e positivas de TSM sobre o Pacífico Equatorial parecem influir em todos os meses selecionados a variabilidade de precipitação no sul e a variabilidade da TSM do Atlântico Subtropical, adjacente à Região Sul do País, não influencia diretamente a variabilidade de chuvas sobre o RS. Assim, conclui-se que períodos de veranicos ou úmidos são descritos por padrões climáticos definidos. / Agriculture plays an extremely important role in the economy of Rio Grande do Sul state. The target region of the present work in its northwest portion is represented by six cities: São Luiz Gonzaga, Santa Rosa, Cruz Alta, Iraí, Passo Fundo e Marcelino Ramos. It constitute a national focus of soya production and thus depend heavily on atmospheric conditions not only in the synoptic scale but also in climatic. In dry spells periods (known as veranicos in portuguese), during growing to harvest and, comprehending the months from October to March, the frequent lack of rain brings great economic losses to the region. The aim of this work is to estimate the climatology of dry spells occurrence in the northwest portion of Rio Grande do Sul in the first and fourth quarters of the year, between 1978 and 2005. Related to extreme climatic periods and the greater occurrence of dry spells, we depicted atmospheric and oceanic patterns. In conclusion, it is stated that the number of dry spells that occur in the first quarter of the year is greater than that which take place in the fourth quarter what is directly related to the monthly precipitation climatology. Santa Rosa is the municipality which presents the greater number of dry spells, even with higher monthly climatologic average than the other locations. March and December present more events than the other months, what in this case is related to the low amount of precipitation. During dry and wet periods, there is the evidence of a dipole standard based on ROL data. During dry (wet) periods in the southern part of Brazil it is observed low (high) values of ROL, in relation to climatology. Over the northern region of Brazil, during the same periods, it is observed inverted ROL anomalies, figuring the dipole pattern. An anomalous convergence (divergence) region in high levels above part of the South Region and the adjacent South Atlantic is observed during dry (wet) periods. The circulation pattern in low atmospheric levels, during wet (dry) periods, shows the strengthening (weakening) of the meridional low levels jet, which contributes for the increase (decrease) of rain in the region. ENSO events are somehow connected to the occurrence of dry spells in the region of study. All the considered month during dry (wet) periods in climatic extremes are related to negative (positive) TSM anomalies in the Equatorial Pacific region, that is, to La Niña (El Niño) events. This strong relation between precipitation variability and surface temperature anomalies over South Atlantic is not so evident. In conclusion, the occurrence of dry spells periods is well related to extreme climatic conditions.

Manifiesta que la industria avícola es “generadora de alimentos proteicos de alto valor para la población humana, en la forma de carne y huevos”. Para su alimentación, la soya es uno de los insumos más importantes debido a que contiene alrededor de 20 % de grasa, 40 % de proteínas y 30 % de carbohidratos. Sin embargo, se han reportado, soya contaminada con aflatoxinas, ocratoxina A y toxina T – 2. Por lo que en el presente estudio, se determinó las mencionadas “micotoxinas por ELISA” competitivo directo en “soya para aves de producción en la provincia de Chincha”. El 100 % (20/20) de los molinos de los distritos (Chincha Alta, Pueblo Nuevo, Grocio Prado, Sunampe y Alto Larán), con resultados positivos para aflatoxina B1, ocratoxina A y toxina T – 2. “Niveles máximos permitidos” para AFB1 (10 ppb), OA (50 ppb) y toxina T – 2 (150 ppb). La soya para aves contenía OA y toxina T – 2, con 20 % y 60 % por encima del NMP respectivamente. Riesgo de “ocratoxicosis aguda” por el consumo de soya de molinos “Grocio Prado, Sunampe y Alto Larán” y “micotoxicosis aguda” por toxina T – 2, de los distritos de Chincha, excepto “Chincha Alta”. / Tesis

Os cálculos de custo de produção apontam para a viabilidade econômica da soja apenas em médias e grandes propriedades, entretanto os agricultores familiares persistem nesta atividade produtiva há gerações. Diante disso, o objetivo geral deste trabalho é compreender as racionalidades, motivações e estratégias dos agricultores familiares que culminam em sua manutenção na produção de soja em uma região representativa de ambos. Para tanto, foram utilizados dados secundários dos Censos Demográficos e do Censo Agropecuário e pesquisa de campo no município de Capanema na mesorregião do Sudoeste Paranaense. Observou-se a existência de dois conjuntos de motivações e/ou estratégias na sojicultura familiar do Sudoeste. O primeiro conjunto refere-se às motivações exógenas que impulsionam a soja entre os agricultores familiares que são as políticas públicas, tanto creditícias quanto de seguro consideradas fundamentais para o custeio da produção; o mercado que oferece os insumos, define os preços e adquire a produção; as tecnologias direcionadas como as sementes transgênicas e o maquinário agrícola, responsáveis pelo aumento da produtividade e diminuição da penosidade do trabalho em um ambiente de pouca mão de obra e de população, cada vez mais envelhecida. O segundo conjunto é formado pelos fatores endógenos verificados no trabalho de campo. Ele refere-se à cultura da população rural do Sudoeste, à detenção de um saber fazer sobre a sojicultura, à tradição, às possibilidades que a terra e o clima local oferecem e à renda adquirida pelas famílias. As diferentes combinações destes fatores explicam as razões e o modo como os sojicultores familiares constroem suas racionalidades para se viabilizarem na produção e permanecerem como agricultores, mesmo em meio às dificuldades da atividade. / Estimation of production costs estimation suggests that soya crop would be economically viable only in medium and large lands; however, family farmers have kept this activity for many generations. Taking it into account, the main goal of this thesis is to understand the rationality, strategies and motivations which support the soya farmers’ activities in a representative region of both. In order to answer these questions, secondary dataset from diverse sources were employed such as demographics and agricultural Surveys as well as field research in Capanema Municipality, in the Mesoregion of Southwest Parana. According to the field survey, we observe that there are two samples of motivations and strategies. The first sample refers to exogenous motivations, which support soya activities; public policies such as credits and insurance-both being essential for the production costs- and also, the market that offers the inputs, sets the prices and get the production, technologies which have developed transgenic seeds and farm machines - both being essential for the increase in the productivity and reduction of hardship in an environment with low workforce and elderly population. The second sample is the result of endogenous factors such as culture, knowledge transmitted by previous generations, possibilities to explore land considering local climate and their income. The different combinations of these factors explain why and how soya farmers develop diverse rationality to have economically viable production and consequently, remain as farmers, despite all the existing difficulties.

Made available in DSpace on 2017-07-10T17:37:31Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Celso_Ari_Palagi.pdf: 1225111 bytes, checksum: 53c7b584eb8d2e2e9d1d9affdfb76833 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2004-03-29 / The culture of the Soya has great economic importance in the Brazilian agricultural scenery, from being that the production of seeds significantly to contribute importance with this process. Methods and tests of quality estimate of the seeds really have been showing their potential are avail large so, this work had purpose to seek a alternative methodology capable of to minimize the harm soak up during the realization the tests of the seeds germination standard. For so much, seeds coming from three places of production from South Brazil area, harvested the agricultural bearing 2001/02, of the cultivars CD 201, CD 202 and CD 210 were rated via middle of the tests: first couting of germination, tests germination standard of, percentile of plantule abnormal, tetrazolium germination, tetrazolium worth and emergency on soil flooring. The tests were done on two ages; the first on three months after harvest and the second on six months after harvest. On all tests parts of the seeds were pre-soaking prior of the realization of the same, the other party did follow the traditional methodology. The pre-soaking constituted in the setting of the seeds on ductile boxes (gerbox). On the screen steely inox containing 40 fl Oz milligram water, during a period of 24h the 25ºC, on camera of germination of type Mangelsdorf. After this period the seeds were analyzed in the diverse tests, according the prescribed in the Rules Parsing of Seeds. The sowing in the soil, for the evaluation of the emergency, went executing on hothouse covered with transparent sailcloth ductile like a tunnel. The contour experimental utilized was casually with four iterations. The Work were unfolded on two experiments conform origin the seeds; in the first went compared with the cultivars CD 201 and CD 202 and in the second analyzed only the CD 210. The results were, then, submitted to statistical parsing firstly, individually within on each epoch of evaluation on each place, and subsequent to proceeded the parsing conjoint considering two ages and the three places. The procured results permit to make conclusion that the results pre-soaking introduced 6% TPG seeds, only to the cultivar CD 202. To the three places, if nothing else one of the ages of realization tests. The responses positive of the pre-soaking of the seeds of cultivar CD 202 is compatible with the procured results in the test of tetrazolium/viability (1-5) e of emergency on soil. / A cultura da soja tem grande importância econômica no cenário agrícola brasileiro, sendo que a produção de sementes contribui significativamente com este processo. Métodos e testes de avaliação da qualidade das sementes que realmente expressem o seu potencial são de grande valia. Esta pesquisa teve por objetivo buscar uma metodologia alternativa capaz de minimizar os danos de embebição durante a realização do teste padrão de germinação das sementes. Para tanto, sementes provenientes de três locais de produção da região sul do Brasil, colhidas na safra agrícola 2001/02, dos cultivares CD 201, CD 202 e CD 210 foram avaliadas por meio dos testes: primeira contagem de germinação, teste padrão de germinação, percentual de plântulas anormais, tetrazólio germinação, tetrazólio vigor e emergência em solo. Os testes foram realizados em duas épocas; a primeira, três meses após a colheita (3 MAC) e a segunda, seis meses após a colheita (6 MAC). Em todos os testes subamostras das sementes foram pré-embebidas antes da realização dos mesmos e, a outra parte seguiu a metodologia tradicional. A pré-embebição consistiu na colocação das sementes em caixas plásticas sobre tela de aço inox, contendo 40 mL de água, por um período de 24h a 25oC, em câmara de germinação do tipo Mangelsdorf. As sementes foram analisadas nos diversos testes, conforme o prescrito nas Regras para Análise de Sementes. A semeadura no solo, para a avaliação da emergência, foi realizada em estufa coberta com lona plástica transparente - tipo túnel. O delineamento experimental utilizado foi o inteiramente casualizado com quatro repetições. O trabalho foi desdobrado em dois segmentos conforme a procedência das sementes; no primeiro foram comparados os cultivares CD 201 e CD 202 e no segundo analisou-se somente o CD 210. Os resultados foram, então, submetidos à análise estatística primeiramente, individual por época de avaliação em cada local, e posteriormente procedeu-se à análise conjunta considerando as duas épocas e os três locais. Os resultados obtidos permitiram concluir que a pré-embebição apresentou resultados superiores a 6% no TPG para as sementes do cultivar CD 202 dos três locais, em pelo menos uma das épocas de realização dos testes. A resposta positiva à pré-embebição das sementes do cultivar CD 202 é compatível com os resultados obtidos no teste de tetrazólio/viabilidade (1-5) e de emergência em solo. O cultivar CD 210 apresentou resultados significativos à pré-embebição nos testes de primeira contagem de germinação e TPG, somente para as sementes de Campo Mourão e Cascavel.

Tez (Yüksek Lisans) - Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Toprak Anabilim Dalı, 2009. / Kaynakça var.

Der Bericht beschreibt Methoden und Ergebnisse von Fütterungsversuchen mit Trockenschlempe und Rapsextraktionsschrot. Im Lehr- und Versuchsgut Köllitsch wurden über Futterabrufstationen Sauentragefutter und Schweinemastfutter ohne Sojaextraktionsschrot eingesetzt. Das Tragefutter enthielt 6 oder 10 Prozent Weizentrockenschlempe bzw. 10 Prozent Rapsextraktionsschrot. Die Reproduktionsleistungen der Sauen wurden dadurch nicht nachteilig beeinflusst. Durch den Einsatz von 10 Prozent Weizentrockenschlempe wurden je Sau etwa 1 Euro und durch den Einsatz von Rapsextraktionsschrot etwa 2 Euro je Sau eingespart. In der Anfangsmast wurden 20 Prozent Weizentrockenschlempe bzw. 20 Prozent Rapsextraktionsschrot eingesetzt, in der Endmast jeweils 16 Prozent dieser Nebenprodukte. Trockenschlempe war im Gegensatz zu Rapsextraktionsschrot als alleiniges Eiweißfuttermittel in der Schweinemast geeignet. Dadurch konnten die Futterkosten je Schwein um 4 Euro gesenkt werden.

Thesis (MSc Food Sc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to determine whether acceptable polony can be manufactured with varying quantities of chicken mechanically recovered meat (MRM), soya flour and pork rind to a fixed protein content of 10%, irrespective of fat content and without the addition of more fat to obtain a total meat equivalent (TME) of 75%. The effect of replacing MRM with soya and rind on the chemical, physical and sensory characteristics of polony was measured. The cost of producing each treatment by using the varying ingredients was also calculated. Three levels of soya flour (0, 4 and 8%) were combined with three levels of pork rind (0, 8 and 16%) to formulate the nine treatments of polony (R0S0, R0S4, R0S8, R8S0, R8S4, R8S8, R16S0, R16S4 and R16S8, where R and S represents rind and soya, respectively). The cost of making the nine treatments varied from R4.54/kg to R2.91/kg, where the most expensive treatment was the one in which no replacement of MRM was done (R0S0) and the least expensive treatment was R16S8, where most MRM was substituted with rind (16%) and soya (8%). The chemical results showed that the protein content of the nine treatments varied between 9.7 and 10.5%. Fat and ash decreased while moisture and total collagen increased as more MRM was being replaced with increasing levels of soya, rind or combinations of them. The physical results indicated that L* and b* increased while a* decreased, resulting in treatment samples which were lighter, more yellow and less red in colour. Hardness and gumminess increased in samples singly replaced with 8% rind, 4% soya or their combination (R0S0, R0S4, R8S0 and R8S4), while they decreased in the rest of the treatments. Cohesiveness increased in all treatments with increasing levels of soya and rind except for the sample containing 16% rind and 8% soya (R16S8). The pH of treatments containing 0% soya increased with rind increase whereas those with 4% soya did not change. The lowest pH was for the sample with 16% rind and 8% soya (R16S8). Sliceability was used to determine the ease of cutting intact slices at slice thicknesses of 2 and 3 mm. The sliceability of polony treatments which exhibited good slicing characteristic ranged between 80 and 100% at both 2 mm and 3 mm slice thicknesses. Sliceability was poorest for the treatment with high levels of rind and soya (R16S8) at both 3 mm (40%) and 2 mm (0%). The water holding capacity (WHC) of all treatments improved, except for the treatments to which no rind and soya was added (R0S0) and the treatment in which MRM was replaced with 8% soya (R0S8). Sensory analyses results signified that pink colour, colour intensity, salty taste, flavours (garlic, polony and spicy) and firmness decreased while soya flavour, pasty and fatty mouthfeel increased with increasing levels of rind, soya or their combination. Coarse texture decreased as rind increased while it increased with an increase in soya levels. Only five treatments were employed for consumer analyses. The most preferred treatment was that with 0% rind and 0% soya (R0S0), while the sample with 0% rind and 8% soya (R0S8) was the least preferred. It can be concluded that the production of polony through the replacement of MRM with rind and soya flour is possible, but consumer preference results show that consumers like polony products which have low levels of soya (≤4%) and moderate levels of rind (≤8%). However, the negative effects of rind and soya in polony with high levels of soya and rind can be rectified by adding appropriate additives, as provided for by manufactured meat regulations. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie studie was om vas te stel of wisselende hoeveelhede meganies herwonne hoendervleis, sojameel en swoerd gebruik kan word om aanvaarbare polonie te vervaardig met ʼn vaste proteïeninhoud van 10%, ongeag die vetinhoud, en sonder die byvoeging van meer vet om ʼn algehele vleisekwivalent van 75% te kry. Hiervoor is die uitwerking op die chemiese, fisiese en sintuiglike kenmerke van polonie gemeet wanneer meganies herwonne vleis (“mechanically recovered meat”, oftewel “MRM”) met soja en swoerd vervang word. Voorts is die produksiekoste van elke formule op grond van verskillende bestanddele bereken. Drie vlakke sojameel (0%, 4% en 8%) is met drie vlakke swoerd (0%, 8% en 16%) gekombineer om die nege polonieformules (R0S0, R0S4, R0S8, R8S0, R8S4, R8S8, R16S0, R16S4 en R16S8) te skep, waar R die swoerd (“rind”) en S die sojameel verteenwoordig. Die vervaardigingskoste van die nege formules wissel van R4,54/kg tot R2,91/kg: Die duurste formule was dié sonder enige MRM-vervanging (R0S0), en die goedkoopste waar die meeste MRM met swoerd en soja vervang is (R16S8). Die chemiese resultate toon dat die proteïninhoud vir die nege formules tussen 9,7% en 10,5% wissel. Vet en as het afgeneem en vog en algehele kollageen het toegeneem namate al hoe meer MRM met toenemende vlakke soja, swoerd of ʼn kombinasie daarvan vervang is. Fisiese resultate toon dat L* en b* met MRM-vervanging toegeneem het, terwyl a* afgeneem het, met ligter, geler en minder rooi monsters tot gevolg. Hardheid en taaiheid het toegeneem by monsters waar MRM stuksgewys met 8% swoerd, 4% soja of ʼn kombinasie daarvan vervang is (R0S0, R0S4, R8S0 en R8S4), terwyl dit by die res van die formules afgeneem het. Saamklewing het by alle formules met hoër vlakke soja en swoerd toegeneem, buiten by die monster met 16% swoerd en 8% soja (R16S8). Die pH van formules met 0% soja het toegeneem namate die swoerd vermeerder is, terwyl dié met 4% soja onveranderd gebly het. Die laagste pH is aangeteken by die monster met 16% swoerd en 8% soja (R16S8). Snybaarheid is bepaal aan die hand van die gemak waarmee skywe van onderskeidelik 2 mm en 3 mm dik gesny kon word. Goeie snybaarheid, met ander woorde tussen 80% en 100%, is aangeteken vir polonie wat in sowel 2 mm as 3 mm diktes gesny kon word. Snybaarheid was die swakste vir die formule met hoë vlakke swoerd en soja (R16S8), vir sowel die 3 mm (40%) as die 2 mm diktes (0%). Die waterhouvermoë het by alle formules verbeter, buiten by die formule waarby geen swoerd of soja gevoeg is nie (R0S0) en die formule waar MRM met 8% soja vervang is (R0S8). Die resultate van die sintuiglike ontledings dui daarop dat die pienk kleur, kleurdiepte, sout smaak, geure (knoffel, polonie en speserye) en fermheid afgeneem het, en die sojageur, deegagtige tekstuur sowel as die tekstuur op die tong toegeneem het namate meer swoerd, soja of ʼn kombinasie daarvan bygevoeg is. Grofheid van tekstuur het afgeneem namate die swoerd verminder is, terwyl dit weer toegeneem het met ʼn toename in soja. Slegs vyf formules is vir verbruikersontledings gebruik. Die gewildste formule was dié met 0% swoerd en 0% soja (R0S0), terwyl die monster met 0% swoerd en 8% soja (R0S8) die minste byval gevind het. Daar kan dus afgelei word dat polonieproduksie deur die vervanging van MRM met swoerd en sojameel moontlik is, hoewel die proetoetsresultate toon dat verbruikers polonieprodukte met lae sojavlakke (≤4%) en matige swoerdvlakke (≤8%) verkies. Tog kan die negatiewe uitwerking van groot hoeveelhede swoerd en soja in polonie reggestel word deur toepaslike bymiddels, waarvoor die regulasies oor verwerkte vleis voorsiening maak, by te voeg.

As primeiras plantações brasileiras de organismos geneticamente modificados (OGM) aconteceram no Rio Grande do Sul, em 1997. As sementes plantadas correspondem à soja Roundup Ready, usualmente chamada de soja transgênica, cujos direitos de propriedade pertencem a Monsanto. Em 1998 instalou-se a controvérsia, pois foi divulgado na imprensa que existiam extensas plantações no norte do estado, a partir de sementes contrabandeadas da Argentina. A controvérsia mobilizou atores governamentais, associações de agricultores, empresas, pequenos e grandes produtores, universidades e centros de pesquisa. Logo, este estudo tem por objetivo compreender o processo inovativo da soja transgênica no Rio Grande do Sul a partir da rede de atores no período de 1998 a 2003, ano da divulgação da MP 131 que permitiu a comercialização da safra transgênica. Para isto, foi adotada a perspectiva da Actor Network Theory, que considera humanos e não-humanos como atores no processo de criação de novas tecnologias. A esta perspectiva soma-se uma formulação mais explícita de poder, a fim de compreender como se dá o processo inovativo em países periféricos, a partir de uma discussão sobre hegemonia e sobre o papel das grandes empresas multinacionais. A análise de dados foi feita através da análise crítica de discurso, sendo identificadas três cadeias de tradução construídas pela rede de atores que se entrecruzam e constroem a soja transgênica: 1) a cadeia que utiliza o discurso do OGM como fonte de ganhos econômicos aliados à preservação ambiental e ao fim da fome no mundo, 2) a cadeia que liga a soja transgênica à hegemonia do capital internacional e 3) a cadeia que associa os transgênicos às incertezas ambientais e de saúde. Por fim, o processo inovativo da soja transgênica é um processo político, sendo que a própria soja transgênica pode ser compreendida como um objeto político. / The first Brazilian plantations of genetic modified organisms (GMOs) took place at the State of Rio Grande do Sul in 1997. The seeds then cultivated were those of the so called Roundup Ready Soya, usually known as transgenic Soya and which property rights belong to Monsanto. In 1998, a controversial debate began when the press spread the information that Roundup Ready Soya seeds were being smuggled from Argentina and cultivated at north of the State. The controversies mobilized governmental actors, agriculture associations, enterprises, small and big producers, universities and research centers. Within this context, this work seeks to understand the innovative process of transgenic Soya at Rio Grande do Sul looking at its actors network between 1998 and 2003, this last being the year of the provisory federal law 131, which has legalized the transgenic Soya at Brazil. To achieve this purpose, the Actor Network Theory perspective was adopted because it sees human and not human beings as actors in the process of new technologies creation. To this perspective a more explicit formulation of power is added in order to understand how the innovative process in peripheral countries takes place based on a discussion about hegemony and the role of big multinational companies. Data analysis was done following the critical analysis of discourse. Three chains of translation built by the actors' network were identified as intertwining and generating the transgenic Soya: (1st) the chain that uses the GMO discourse as a source of economic profit combined with environmental preservation and the end of world hunger; (2nd) the chain that attaches Soya to international capital hegemony; and (3rd) the chain that associates transgenic organisms to environmental and health uncertainties. To resume, it is said that the innovative process of transgenic Soya is a political process, being the transgenic Soya in itself possibly seen as a politic object.