Thesis (Ed.D.)--Boston University / PLEASE NOTE: Boston University Libraries did not receive an Authorization To Manage form for this thesis or dissertation. It is therefore not openly accessible, though it may be available by request. If you are the author or principal advisor of this work and would like to request open access for it, please contact us at open-help@bu.edu. Thank you. / Cognitive processing abilities play a vital role in sport performance, and in order to perform at the highest possible level, athletes must be at optimal states of cognitive readiness to compete at the outset of competition. Therefore, athletes may benefit from using a valid and reliable assessment tool that could identify generalized cognitive deficits prior to sport competitions that may be present due to psychological or external stressors. Corrective action could then be taken to counter deficits if they are detected. The quantitative portion of the present study used a single-participant design to assess the predictive ability of a portable cognitive assessment device known as the MiniCog (Shephard & Kosslyn, 2003) on various aspects of performance in sport. Seven participants competing and/or training in five sports were used to determine if performance on the MiniCog test battery would correlate with performance in sport. The primary hypothesis was that sport performance would improve as performance on the MiniCog test battery improved. No consistent trends of support were found in the data, as the seven participants produced correlations of various strength and direction between the MiniCog Rapid Assessment Battery (MRAB) and sport performance. The MiniCog device did not appear to be an accurate predictor of sport performance for the participants in this project, but due to some trends that were seen in the data, the possibility that it could be useful under different conditions or with additional participants cannot be discounted at this time. The qualitative exploration revealed that the five participants who used the MiniCog device prior to athletic events throughout their competitive season suggested that use of the MiniCog appeared to affect their focus, confidence, and anxiety levels in both facilitative and debilitative ways. Also, excessive external distractions, time constraints, and focus on the pending athletic event limited the participants' capacity to implement the MiniCog device into their precompetitive routines successfully. The results from this portion of the project yielded useful recommendations for athletes and their coaches or sport psychologists concerning the feasibility of utilizing a portable assessment device in applied settings. / 2031-01-02

The tapering distribution of segment masses in the human arm helps in the generation of high ball release speeds in overarm throwing. However, the masses of the individual arm segments might not be optimal; arm segment masses could be optimised in order to improve throwing performance. The aim of this project was to identify and understand the optimal upper arm mass that results in the highest ball release speed in overarm throwing. The first study was a theoretical study, using a simple two-segment model of the arm to determine the optimal combination of arm segment masses that maximises ball release speed. This simplified throw was chosen to identify the basic mechanism causing changes in ball release speed with a heavier upper arm mass. The study identified that there is an optimal upper arm mass, but this optimum depends on the forearm mass and the shoulder torque. Furthermore, the study showed that a heavier forearm mass produces a lower ball release speed. An experimental approach was used in the second study to analyse the effect of additional upper arm mass on ball release speed and throwing mechanics in an overarm throw similar to that used by baseball pitchers. However, group analysis of the ball release speed did not reveal an optimal upper arm mass, and most of the kinematic, kinetic, and temporal variables were not affected by additional upper arm mass. However, analysing the ball release speed of each participant individually revealed that most participants increased their ball release speed, although there was considerable variation in the optimal upper arm mass. As the optimal upper arm masses in this study did not agree with those predicted in the first theoretical study, a more realistic three-dimensional model is needed to simulate the effect of upper arm mass on ball release speed. The third study was a combination of a theoretical and experimental approach. A three-dimensional model of the throwing arm was used to predict the participant's optimal upper arm mass and to determine the kinematic and kinetic variables that determine the optimal upper arm mass in overarm throwing. Even though the simulations did not accurately predict an athlete's optimal upper arm mass, the results highlighted that throwing athletes can benefit from a heavier upper arm mass as long as their ability to produce a high internal shoulder rotation angular velocity is not restricted. In summary, the findings of this project highlight that some athletes can benefit from a heavier upper arm mass to maximise their ball release speed without increasing the risk of injuries. However, as the optimal upper arm varies between athletes it is important to analyse each athlete individually.

The ability of an individual to perform a functional movement is determined by a range of mechanical properties including the force and power producing capabilities of muscle, and the interplay of force and power outputs between different muscle groups (intermuscular coordination). Cycling presents an ideal experimental model to investigate these factors as it is an ecologically valid multi-joint movement in which kinematics and resistances can be tightly controlled. The overall goal of this thesis was thereby to investigate mechanical muscle properties and intermuscular coordination during maximal and submaximal cycling. The specific research objectives were (a) to determine the contribution of these factors to maximal and submaximal cycling, and (b) to determine the extent to which these factors set the limit of performance in maximal cycling. The contribution of mechanical muscle properties and intermuscular coordination were investigated by observing joint kinetics and joint kinematics across variations in crank lengths and pedalling rates during maximal and submaximal cycling. The extent to which these factors set the limit of performance in maximal cycling was assessed by observing joint-level kinetics of world-class track sprint cyclists. The findings of this investigation formed the rationale for the fourth study which used an ankle brace intervention to investigate the effects of a fixed ankle on joint biomechanics and performance during maximal cycling. Sophisticated intermuscular coordination strategies were observed in both submaximal and maximal cycling, supporting the generalised notion that high levels of intermuscular coordination are required to perform functional multi-joint movement tasks. Furthermore, it was found that the maximal cycling task is governed by the interaction of the force-velocity relationship and excitation-relaxation kinetics, suggesting that task-specific mechanical muscle properties are the dominant contributing factor in maximal movements. In terms of the extent to which these factors limit performance in maximal cycling, it was demonstrated that world-class track sprint cycling performance is governed by the ability to generate higher joint moments at the ankle and knee, and that these joint moments are facilitated by enhanced muscular strength about these joints. These findings allow us to speculate that the limits of performance in maximal human movements lie in extraordinary muscular strength in task-specific joint actions. These findings give an insight into the mechanisms that underpin maximal and submaximal cycling, and provide a theoretical framework with which to understand sprint cycling performance. This knowledge has significant applied relevance for athletes and coaches seeking to improve sprint cycling performance.

Branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) supplementation may improve recovery from competitive endurance training by reducing symptoms of central and peripheral fatigue. The purpose of this dissertation was to provide evidence for the use of BCAAs as a training nutrition strategy in order to improve recovery from training and further drive adaptive processes to training by increasing readiness to train. Collegiate distance runners undergoing intense competitive endurance training were monitored for symptoms of muscular soreness and psychological stress through a rated soreness chart and the Daily Analysis of Life Demands for Athletes Survey (DALDA) while taking either a BCAA supplement or a placebo. When on the BCAA supplement, athletes reported significantly fewer symptoms of psychological stress and reduced muscular soreness. These results point to the importance of nutrient bioavailability, specifically BCAAs, on recovery parameters when undergoing intensive training. This concept was also demonstrated in a case study on a trained distance runner who underwent intensive training for an ultra-endurance marathon. Running kinematics were assessed using Kinovea open-sourced software (Version 0.8.15) during a series of constant-paced endurance runs while on the BCAA supplement or a placebo. We observed a reduction in vertical oscillation when the runner was on the BCAA supplement, indicating improved muscle recovery and therefore efficiency of movement. Improving recovery by reducing global central and peripheral fatigue symptoms may increase readiness to train and further promote desired training adaptations.

New neuroimaging techniques have made it possible to examine imagery and found evidence for that imagery share similar neural correlates as in perception. Imagery can be used in different areas to enhance performance, and it is a popular technique in sports. Similar to physical practice (PP), motor imagery (MI) can result in brain plasticity. The aim of this thesis is to describe what imagery means and describe different theories of imagery. This is to further look into what impact MI has on performance in different sports, and then to further see if there are any changes in brain plasticity as a result of using MI. There is a lack of studies done on MI, performance and brain plasticity in sport. To answer the latter focus of this thesis, studies of healthy persons and patient studies using MI to improve performance and examining changes in the brain have been used. In order to do that this thesis aims to do a literature review. The results indicate that MI combined with PP can improve sport performance. It has also been showed that MI alone can be as good as PP. Most studies found that MI combined with PP can result in brain plasticity, and only one study did not found evidence for it. It has also showed that MI alone can result in brain plasticity. Future research should include larger samples, matching subjects, and comparing the effects of MI in several kinds of sports.

Ideally an athlete would continue to improve performance indefinitely over time, however improvement slows as the athlete approaches their genetic limits. Measuring performance is complex—performance may be temporarily depressed following aggressive training for multiple reasons, physiological and psychosocial. This reality may be vexing to the strength and conditioning coach, who, as a service provider, must answer to sport coaches about an athlete’s progress. Re-cently an evaluation mechanism for strength and conditioning coaches was proposed, in part to help coaches establish their effectiveness within the organization. Without formal guidance and realistic expectations, if an athlete is not bigger, leaner, stronger, etc. as a result of training within a specified timeframe, blame is often placed upon the strength and conditioning coach. The purpose of this article is to explore possible causes of what may be perceived as athlete non-responses to training and to provide guidance for the coach on how to handle those issues within their domain. A process of investigation is recommended, along with resources to assist coaches as they consider a broad range of issues, including enhancing existing testing methods, improving athlete behaviors, and adjusting processes designed to bring about performance improvement.

When distance runners are recruited or walk-on to participate on their college track teams, they have two main goals in mind. They want to have a satisfying individual and team experience, and they have a desire to win and be the best. The outcomes of these goals are most directly influenced by their coach, who plans, develops, and implements the mental and physical aspects of the distance runners' overall training program. Wins and losses can be measured on the track, but distance runners' perceptions of satisfaction with their athletic experience are not often or easily assessed. Based on the advantages that satisfaction can offer student-athletes, this study was designed to achieve a dual purpose. The primary purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between collegiate distance runners' satisfaction and training protocols. The secondary purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between collegiate distance runners' training program satisfaction and performance. The participants included 130 NCAA distance runners from the six major Division I conferences. In order to assess satisfaction levels of training and instruction protocols and performance, the procedures required the distance runners to complete the 2010 Track Distance Athlete Satisfaction and Performance Questionnaire. The 2010 Track Distance Athlete Satisfaction and Performance Questionnaire was comprised of the following four sections: training (satisfaction), instruction (satisfaction), performance (satisfaction), and demographic information. The results were analyzed to determine the relationships between satisfaction and the training and instruction protocols and between overall training program satisfaction and performance, gender, and academic level. The results of this study indicated that NCAA Division I distance runners perceive their coaches' overall training programs and training and instruction protocols as satisfying. Further research is needed to continue to fill the gap in the satisfaction and performance literature and to develop a comprehensive understanding of this complex relationship. Overall, this study found that distance runners who are satisfied with their training program tend to be confident in their training, motivated, trusting of the coach and his or her training program, and enjoy their college racing and training experience. Therefore, satisfaction also positively affects distance runner retention. / Ph. D.

This thesis is about selection processes and processes of measuring and judging athletes in competitions in top-level sport. The purpose was to increase the knowledge of these processes and to analyse them from a validity perspective in order to contribute to the discussion of whether the “right” athletes are selected to participate in teams, competitions and games and whether the “right” athletes win. The rule and judging systems were investigated in the judged sports acroski and rhythmic gymnastics. Information was gathered through individual interviews with two judges, two coaches, and four elite athletes from each of the sports, and in addition to this the respective sport’s rule systems, judging manuals, meeting protocols and historical documents were studied. Selections to top-level sport teams were investigated by individual interviews with 14 top-level coaches (selectors) from the national league in soccer and a national team and from national teams in alpine skiing. The results from the judging study showed that both studied sports had undergone major changes in their rule and judging regulations, changes that had a considerable impact on the sports and the judgements. The level of definition of the rules and regulations was raised to increase the opportunities for clear and reliable judgements, but this became problematic for the overall validity of the judgements. The reason for this was that the new rules and regulations did not clearly correspond to the original idea of the sport, since the specified and detailed regulations lead to less originality and freedom in the performances. In the selection study, the results pointed to great differences in how precisely defined the selection criteria were among the teams. The selectors stated that well-defined selection criteria or grounds could be helpful in many ways, but they also emphasised how important it was for them that some parts of the selections were based on their subjective valuations of the athletes. Quite a few coaches from both sports argued that they would choose an athlete with good behaviour and favourable personality over an athlete with better sports skills, if they had an opportunity to do that depending on the selection system that was used. Overall, this research displays how validity issues connected to the selection and judging criteria and these processes might affect the outcome of the processes. It is notable that high reliability is in the main focus of the measuring and judging processes, while considerably vaguer and more subjective assessments are considered important in the selection process. The thesis points to the importance of discussing and understanding the consequences of rules, rule changes, selection and judging criteria as well as how these processes are performed, if the desired outcomes and consequences of the selection and judging processes are to be reached.

Le concept de fantasme, dans le champ psychanalytique, permet de rendre compte à la fois de l'identité construite et des investissements du sujet. Dans notre revue de littérature nous en présentons les divers aspects. Nous proposons d'en cerner les incidences cliniques, au travers de publications et de rencontres d'acteurs artistiques et sportifs. Notre thèse est que le fantasme est sous-jacent à la passion liée à une activité, bien que celle-ci prenne source en un point qui reste obscur. Nous avançons de plus qu'une part du fantasme est dépassée, pour pouvoir atteindre une performance reconnue comme telle. Ce double mouvement qui se joue dans toute performance, explique les engouements qui y sont inhérents. / The concept of fantasy, in the psychoanalytic field, allows us to explain both the built identity and the investments of the subject. In our litterature revue we show its various aspects. We propose its clinical implications, through publications and interviews from artists and sport players. Our thesis is that fantasy is required to explain the passion linked to an activity (sport or art), but the origin of the passion is still unknown. We promote that it is necessary to subvert a part of fantasy, to be able to achieve an artistic or a sport performance. This double mouvement can explain the enthusiasms that grow around performances.

Mental toughness has received extensive research attention in recent years because of its intuitive and theoretical association with successful performance. However, several significant omissions in understanding remained. This thesis aimed to address these gaps through various research approaches and methodologies, collectively resulting in a biopsychological perspective. The primary objectives were to provide a more holistic perspective of mental toughness and generate quantitative support for the various biological (2D:4D) cognitive-affective (self-structure), physiological (cortisol response) and behavioural (performance) differences that have been associated with the construct. The findings suggested that mental toughness is a multifaceted construct and manifests in several areas of human functioning; specifically, a particular cognitive-affective profile may underlie mental toughness (they possess a positive self-concept and a particular self-structuring style, namely integration). Furthermore, levels of cortisol during a competitive event (a physiological indicator of perceived stress levels) were significantly negatively related to mental toughness, suggesting that mentally tough individuals have a reduced perception of threat in competitive situations (giving support for the notion that they perceive competition or stress as a potential challenge for personal growth and improvement). An objective marker of mental toughness was also supported; specifically, 2D:4D ratio (indicative of prenatal testosterone levels) related significantly with scores on a mental toughness scale, giving support for the biological underpinning of the construct and an objective marker of mental toughness. Finally, two case examples are provided to demonstrate the usability of these important markers (cognitive, biological and physiological) in an applied context.