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Thesis (M Sport Sc (Sport Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The purpose of the study was to analyse the penalty area entrances of a team competing in the Premier Soccer League (PSL) in South Africa. Ten home matches of the team were analysed making use of a category set designed for the study. The main areas of analysis included the point of final action before the ball entered the penalty area, the part of the penalty area at which the entrance occurred, the method of entrance, the number of completed passes within the area, and the outcome of the entrance as well as the reason for the outcome. The results revealed that the team entered the penalty area on average 59.4 times per match and scored a goal on every 37.4 penalty area entrances. The ball being taken away by the opponents was the outcome that occurred most frequently within the penalty area (42.1% of all entries), and was largely due to interceptions by the defending team (20.7%). The next most commonly occurring event was the ball being given away by the attacking team (22.4% of all entries) and was largely as a result of the poor passing (20%). The results revealed that in order for the team to improve their ability to convert their attacking opportunities into goals, improvement of technical execution in particular passing and shooting within the critical areas of the field must be established. The results have implications for the use of performance analysis for professional teams as support for the coaching process. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van die studie was om „n prestasie-profiel te ontwikkel wat die strafarea-toegang beskryf van „n professionele span wat aan die Premier Sokker Liga (PSL) in Suid-Afrika deelneem. Tien tuiswedstryde van die span is geanaliseer, gebaseer op „n kategorie wat vir die studie ontwerp is. Die vlakke van analise was eerstens die punt van finale aksie voordat die bal die strafarea binnegaan, die plek in die strafarea waar toegang plaasgevind het, die metode van toegang, die hoeveelheid afgehandelde aangee-aksies in die area en laastens die uitkoms van die toegang asook die rede vir die uitkoms. Die resultate het aangedui dat die span die strafarea ongeveer 59.4 keer per wedstryd betree en elke 37.4 „n doel aanteken deur toegang tot die strafarea te verkry. Die afneem van die bal deur „n span (42.1% van toegang) het die meeste plaasgevind nadat die bal die strafarea binne gegaan het. Dit is grotendeels te wyte aan onderskepping deur die verdedigende span (20.7%). Die weggee van die bal deur die aanvallende span (22.4% van toegang) was hoofsaaklik as gevolg van swak aangee-aksies (20%) en het ook dikwels voorgekom. Die prestasie-profiel het aangedui dat indien die span hulle vermoë wil verbeter om aanvallende geleenthede te laat eindig in „n doel, verbetering nodig is met tegniese uitvoering, veral met vaardighede ten opsigte van „n bal-aangee en doelskop. Hierdie studie is „n voorbeeld van hoe prestasie-analise aangewend kan word in professionele sokker om ondersteuning aan die afrigtingsproses te bied.

Thesis (M Sport Sc (Sport Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study investigated the effect of a coordination-training programme on selected fundamental motor skills of children (ages 9 to 12) who were identified as having motor development delays. The group of participants identified included seven boys and one girl. The study followed an A-B-A reversal design. The intervention was a rhythm-based training programme. The dependent variables were the motor abilities of bilateral coordination, balance and upper-limb coordination, assessed using the BOT-2. The results of an ANOVA for dependent groups indicated a significant improvement in bilateral coordination and no change in balance. The improvement in upper-limb coordination was attributed to a familiarisation or learning effect on the test. A descriptive analysis of each child’s results revealed high variability in the effect of participation in the programme. The results of this study supported the conclusion that a rhythm-based coordination-training programme may help children with coordination problems improve their bilateral coordination, which will have a positive impact on the performance on many fundamental gross motor skills. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie het die effek van ‘n koördinasie-inoefeningsprogram op die geselekteerde fundementele motoriese vaardighede van kinders (9-12 jaar) ondersoek wat geïdentifiseer is met vertraagde motoriese ontwikkeling. Die geïdentifiseerde groep deelnemers sluit sewe seuns en een dogter in. Die studie het ‘n A-B-A omgekeerde ontwerp gevolg. Die intervensie was ‘n ritmies-gebaseerde inoefeningsprogram. Die afhanklike veranderlikes was die motoriese vaardighede van bilaterale koördinasie, balans en boonste ledematekoördinasie wat geassesser is deur middel van BOT-2. Die resultate van ‘n ANOVA vir afhanklike groepe dui ‘n beduidende verbetering aan in bilaterale koördinasie en geen verandering in balans nie. Die verbetering in boonste ledemate-koördinasie kan toegeskryf word aan vertroudheid met of leereffek van die toets. ‘n Beskrywende analise van elke kind se resultate het ‘n hoë veranderlikheid aan die lig gebring op die effek van deelname in die program. Die resultate van hierdie studie ondersteun die gevolgtrekking dat ‘n ritmies-gebaseerde koördinasie-inoefeningsprogram kinders met koördinasieprobleme kan help om hulle bilaterale koördinasie te verbeter wat ‘n positiewe impak sal hê op prestasie tydens verskeie fundamentele groot motoriese vaardighede.

Thesis (M Sport Sc (Sport Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010 / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to determine if there was a difference in mean VMRT between top-level men and women participating in selected ball sports compared to either a normative sample or to a non-athlete sample. VMRT was measured using a new 40-light protocol on the Sport Vision Trainer (SVT). The SVT is a board consisting 80 circular lights controlled by a computer program. The SVT is designed to test visual-motor response time in participants. Data from top-level ball sport players were collected for both men (rugby and cricket) and women (netball and hockey). No significant differences in VMRT were found between the rugby players (n=24) and either the normal sample (n=81) or the non-athlete men (n=24). No significant difference in VMRT were found between the cricket players (n=10) and the non-athlete men. However, the cricket players were found to have significantly slower VMRT than the normal sample of men (n=81). No significant differences in VMRT were found between the netball players (n=19), the hockey players (n=14) and either the normal sample of women (n=84) or the non-athlete women (n=26). The conclusions drawn from this study support the position that VMRT may not be a key performance indicator in top-level ball sport performance and that the expert advantage may be located in other variables, such as anticipation and visual search. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van die studie was om the ondesoek of daar verkille was in die gemiddelde visuele-motoriese reaksie tyd (VMRT) tussen top-vlak bal sport atlete en òf „n normale steekproef òf „n steekproef van nie-atlete. VMRT was gemeet met „ nuwe 40-lig protokol op die Sport Vision Trainer. Inligting van die top-vlak bal sport atlete was ingesamel vir beide mans (rugby en krieket) en dames (netabl en hokkkie) Geen statisties beduidende verskille was gevind vir VMRT tussen die rugby spelers (n=24) en beide van die normale (n=81) of nie-atleet mans steekproef (n=24). Geen statisties beduidende verskille was gevind tussen die krieket spelers (n=10) en die nie-atleet mans nie. Alhoewel die krieket spelers het „n statistie beduidende stadiger VMRT as die normale steekproef mans gehad (n=81). Geen beduidende verskille in VMRT was gevind tussen die netbal spelers (n=19), die hokkie spelers (n=14) en beide van die normale steekproef dames (n=84) of die nie-atletiese dames nie (n=26). Die gevolgtrekking wat gemaak kan word uit die studie ondersteun die standpunt dat VMRT nie „n sleutel prestasie voorspeller in top-vlak bal sportsport prestasie is nie en dat die topvlak speler voordeel deur ander visuele veranderlikes soos antispiasie en “visual search” ondersoek kan word.

The aim of this thesis is to investigate the responses of the neuromuscular system to changes and constraints during explosive multi-segment movements of the lower limbs. The trunk segment was constrained into different positions during pendulum rebound exercises to observe how the neuromuscular system reorganises the movement. It was also aimed to examine how the neuromuscular system coordinates maximal countermovement jumps when the muscle forcegenerating properties of part and all muscles involved in these movements are reduced by the acute effects of fatigue or increased after training. The kinematic characteristics of pendulum rebound exercises were affected by constraining the trunk segment. Greater knee joint angular velocity was achieved when the movements were performed in the upright sitting posture (90) in comparison to the other sitting conditions (135° and 180°). The constraint applied on the trunk segment did not result in the emergence of a particular segmental movement between the hip, knee and ankle joints and variability was observed in the initiation of the joint extension of all rebound conditions. The absence of a fixed order for joint extension initiation showed that sequential and temporal variances can emerge during rebound jumps, where the hip joint, in most cases,e xtendedb efore the other joints. The biarticular musclesw ere suggestedto regulatet he distribution of forces between joints by transporting the large amounts of energy produced by monoarticular muscles, irrespective of the constraints imposed on the trunk segment. It was proposed the existence of a pre-programmed pattern that guides the execution of the movement irrespective of the constraints applied on the trunk segment. Fatiguing part and/or all muscle groups involved in maximal countermovemenjtu mps suggestedt he existence of a common drive that mediates and controls the activation timing between agonistantagonist muscle pairs. A similar muscle activation pattern found after fatigue indicated that the neuromuscular system does not reorganise the co-ordination strategy of explosive movements to compensate for the acute effects of muscular fatigue and acts without the knowledge of the muscle force-generating properties. The decline in the ability of the muscles to produce force was the major factor responsible for the decreases observed in jump height and changes in several kinematic and kinetic variables of the movement. The early occurrence of the peak joint angular velocity may have contributed to jump height decrease and indicated that an "optimal" solution (high countermovement jump performance) was not found under fatigue. It was suggested that training under fatigue should be avoided because the subjects may learn a muscle activation pattern that does not represent an optimal solution. Countermovement jump training (specific stimulus) was more effective than a weight lifting programme (non-specific stimulus) to improve jump height performance. This occurred despite the greater gains in isokinetic peak torque of the knee flexor and extensor muscles achieved after the nonspecific training programme in comparison to the specific training programme. It was observed that the training using non-specific stimulus did not cause the neuromuscular system to reorganise the controls. The neuromuscular system was able to reorganise the movement after the training programme that used a specific stimulus. It was concluded that the increased jump height performance observed after the countermovement jump programme can be attributed to a compounded effect, in which the increased ability of the extensor muscles to generate large amounts of energy around the hip joint was linked to the ability of the biarticular muscles to transfer part of this energy to the distal joints. It was noticed that movement co-ordination changes are sensitive to the order in which the training stimuli are introduced. Jump height performance was improved to a greater extent when the countermovement jumps programme followed the knee extensor and flexor muscles strengthening programme than when the training programmes were introduced in the opposite order.

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Purpose: The purpose of this investigation was to assess athlete perceptions of an athlete monitoring program throughout an academic year and coach perceptions throughout a competitive season. The secondary purpose was to develop a questionnaire designed to assess coach and athlete perceptions of the monitoring program. Methods: Athletes and coaches participating in the athlete monitoring program at East Tennessee State University’s (ETSU) Sport Performance Enhancement Consortium (SPEC) were invited to participate. Reliability for the coach and athlete questionnaires and principle components analysis (PCA) of the athlete questionnaire was completed after initial development of the questionnaire (11 questions for athletes and 20 for coaches) in the spring of 2013. To analyze changes throughout the academic year, 4 additional questionnaires were administered at the beginning and end of the fall 2013 and spring 2014 semesters. Results: Both athlete and coach questionnaires were considered reliable (athletes = 0.842, coaches = 0.919). PCA revealed a 3 component model (KMO = 0.798, Bartlett’s test of Sphericity = p < 0.001) with eigenvalues over one explaining 68.88% of total variance. Statistical differences between the pre and all other time points were noted for athlete’s perceptions of the SPEC programs influence on overall performance, skill, strength, speed, power, and understanding of the SPEC monitoring protocols. Coachs’ perceptions were statistically different from pre-to postseason only for skill. Conclusion: The questionnaire was shown reliable and can be considered for future use. The first component of the PCA revealed that perceptions of overall performance are influenced by perceptions of strength, skill, and power and agreement that testing data reflects performance, while the second showed that aerobic and anaerobic endurance as well as speed are all highly correlated and, finally, the third revealed that athletes’ understanding of the SPEC program monitoring increased with return of data. Overall, perceptions of the SPEC programs ability to influence the components assessed by the questionnaire were positive ranging from no different to much better for coaches and athletes. In conclusion, the SPEC athlete monitoring program seems to be a beneficial model for enhancing athletes’ and coaches’ perceptions of certain aspects of performance.

CHANGES IN BODY IMAGE DURING A RESISTANCE TRAINING PROGRAMME FOR WOMEN. There are conflicting results regarding the relationship between exercise and body image. Most research has been cross sectional and cannot determine if dis/satisfaction motivates exercise behaviours or if exercise participation changes dis/satisfaction for better or worse. Also, it has not been established if exercise influences how accurately we estimate our size and how this relates to perception and evaluation of ideals and others. Furthermore, little attention has been directed towards investigating if body image actually changes and it is not clear if exercise plays a therapeutic or detrimental role. The aim of this study was to: a) investigate changes in perceptual and attitudinal body image and changes in body composition during an exercise training programme for women and b) examine the relationship between changes in physical measures and changes in psychological measures. The treatment group (25 females) participated in a 16 week resistance training programme. The control group (n = 12) did not undertake any exercise (above a recreational level). Anthropometric and psychometric tests were administered at 0, 8 and 16 weeks outside pre- and menstrual phases. The results obtained indicated that 1) for both exercise and control groups, there were significant decreases in skinfold thicknesses but no changes in gross measures such as mass, body mass index (BMI), chest-to-waist ratio (CWR) and waist-to-hips ratio (WHR); 2) both groups demonstrated improved size estimation accuracy, less discrepancy between the actual and self-estimated BMI, increased ideal size and a decrease in the perceptual measure of dissatisfaction; 3) both groups increased the sum of regional satisfaction scores; 4) both groups decreased dissatisfaction measured via the Body Shape Questionnaire and 5) similar to other studies, anthropometric variables explain only a small part of the variability in body image. The study demonstrates that body image, measured by a number of instruments, can change. However, improvements in body image cannot be fully explained by exercise participation or changes in body composition. It is possible that desensitisation to exposing the body during repeated measures, perceived social support of the experimenter or even seasonal factors may have contributed to such changes. Exercise is associated with many benefits but is not evident if it has a unique contribution to improved body image health. It cannot be excluded as a potential intervention but should be tailored to individual motivations.

Athletes commonly use various forms of real and simulated altitude exposure combined with sea level training to enhance sea-level performance. Altitude can be simulated through use of apartments, tents and masks that allow athletes to breathe air containing less oxygen. There is clear evidence that altitude exposure combined with sea-level training enhances endurance performance especially when the altitude is real. It is unclear what the optimum level of altitude and length of exposure is to enhance performance, although researchers generally adopt 3-4 weeks at moderate altitude (~3000m). There is also little evidence to suggest how long the performance effect persists for. Large gains in VO2max have been reported following actual altitude exposure that may be partly mediated via an increase in red cell volume or haemoglobin mass. However, exposure to simulated altitude appears to have a little effect on VO2max probably due to differences in daily exposure time. The effects of altitude exposure on sprint performance are limited to several investigations that demonstrate a tendency for improved performance, especially in repeated sprints.

The bicycle is used as a means of transport, for recreation, or sporting activities and has undoubted fitness benefits. However, rider discomforts caused by seat contact, as well as various pathologies effect participation and enjoyment of this activity. The potential causes of these pathologies are discussed, along with the methods used, to establish the link between cycling and the various pathologies. Of particular interest in this thesis, is the measurement of the comfort and pressure of different seat designs. The level of comfort felt may be a precursor to pathological damage and be of prognostic value when assessing and designing seats. Pressure seems to be one of the best and most direct methods to assess the cyclist-seat interaction and offer information as to possible pathologies. The purpose of this thesis was to examine the effects that a standard, partial cut-out and complete cut-out seat have on comfort and stability, in male, female, novice and experienced cyclists, and seat and handlebar pressure in male and female cyclists on a non-stationary bicycle.With regards to the results, the standard seats' mean and peak anterior seat pressures were significantly higher than the partial and complete cut-out seats (partial mean 19.1% and peak 16.8%; complete mean 66.1% and peak 72.6%). Mean and peak posterior pressure of the standard seat was significantly less than the cut-out seats (partial mean 16.5% and peak 12.3%; complete mean 21.6% and peak 21.2%). Overall peak pressure was significantly greater (22.8%) on the standard seat compared to the complete cut-out seat, but not significant (7.2%) compared to the partial cut-out seat design. Significantly lower mean handlebar pressure was associated with the standard (11.2%) and partial cut-out (14.7%) seat designs. There was no significant difference between seats for peak handlebar and mean overall pressure. The standard and partial cut-out seats had the highest sit bone, overall seat, overall riding, hand comfort and stability. The complete cut-out seat provided the greatest crotch comfort, but the lowest comfort and stability for all other factors investigated.It would seem that in terms of pressure distribution the partial cut-out seat would be the best option for cyclists, regardless of gender. In terms of comfort it is recommended that experienced and novice male cyclists should use the standard seat, experienced female cyclists use the partial cut-out seat and novice female cyclists could use either the standard or partial cut-out seat. However, pressure may be of more importance than comfort as it is more likely to influence pathological damage; therefore overall it is recommended that cyclists use the partial cut-out seat. The major draw back of the complete cut-out seat was the decreased perception of stability. With continued use of the complete cut-out seat this may become a better and more user-friendly option with a possible increase in perceived stability. Future research is required to examine any long-term effects in using cut-out seats in pathology prevention.