Die neonatale Hypoxie, als Schwangerschafts- und Geburtskomplikation, ist der wichtigste prädisponierende Umweltfaktor in der Pathophysiologie der Schizophrenie. Sie führt zu einer Schädigung des Gehirns und einer Störung der Hirnentwicklung. Insgesamt sind die neurobiologischen Auswirkungen, insbesondere auf die Zellproliferation, unklar. Im Tiermodell konnten bereits Verhaltensauffälligkeiten ähnlich der Schizophrenie, infolge chronischer neonataler Hypoxie, festgestellt werden. Störungen in der Zellentwicklung könnten hierfür die Ursache sein. Die Hypothese, dass der Beginn der abnormalen Hirnentwicklung perinatal liegt, während erste klinische Symptome im frühen Erwachsenenalter manifest werden, unterstützt diese Ergebnisse. Die Hirnentwicklung der Ratte ist in der frühen postnatalen Periode vergleichbar mit der eines menschlichen Fötus im dritten Trimenon der Schwangerschaft und eignet sich daher pathologische Prozesse im zentralen Nervensystem des Menschen zu reflektieren. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde mit Hilfe postnataler Hypoxie die neuronale Zellproliferation in 20 männlichen Wistar-Ratten zu unterschiedlichen Zeitpunkten (postnataler Tag 13 und 39) untersucht. Die Hypoxietiere wurden vom postnatalen Tag vier bis acht einer Hypoxie, bestehend aus 11% O2 und 89% N2, ausgesetzt. Mit Hilfe der Bromodeoxyuridin-Peroxidasefärbung wurde die Zellproliferation in Hypoxie-vulnerablen Hirnregionen untersucht. Hierzu gehören der Gyrus cinguli, das Striatum, der Gyrus dentatus und die subventrikuläre Zone. Als Vergleich diente eine unbehandelte Kontrollgruppe. Durch ein Mikroskop mit Schrittmotorsystem und Stereo Investigator Software (MicroBrightField, UK) und der Optical Fractionator-Methode konnte erstmals festgestellt werden, dass Hypoxie-behandelte Tiere eine um 20% erhöhte Zellproliferation im Gyrus cinguli am postnatalen Tag 13 aufwiesen. Des Weiteren zeigte sich bei den Hypoxie-behandelten Tieren ein um 16% reduziertes Volumen im Striatum am postnatalen Tag 13. Am postnatalen Tag 39 zeigten sich keine signifikanten Unterschiede mehr. Diese Ergebnisse zeigen, dass ein vorübergehender Einfluss chronischer Hypoxie auf die Zellproliferation und das Volumen angenommen werden kann und das das Gehirn innerhalb gewisser Grenzen während der neuronalen Entwicklung tolerant gegenüber exogenen Noxen wie Hypoxie zu sein scheint. Die Ergebnisse bestätigen auch, dass nur ein kleiner Teil der Hypoxie-assoziierten Geburtskomplikationen zu einer Schizophrenie führt und der Erkrankung eine multifaktorielle Gen-Umwelt-Interaktion zugrunde liegt. Zukünftig könnte es, mit der besseren Kenntnis neurobiologischer Auswirkungen von Umweltfaktoren und genetischen Faktoren im Gehirn, möglich werden die Schizophrenie frühzeitiger zu erkennen und zu behandeln sowie behindernde Symptome zu reduzieren.

Dopamine is an important neurotransmitter that is involved in several human functions such as reward, cognition, emotions and movement. Abnormalities of the neurotransmitter itself, or the dopamine receptors through which it exerts its actions, contribute to a wide range of psychiatric and neurological disorders such as Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia. Thus far, despite the great interest and extensive research, the exact role of dopamine and the causalities of dopamine related disorders are not fully understood. Here we have developed multimodal imaging methods, to investigate the release of dopamine and the distribution of the dopamine D2-like receptor family in-vivo in healthy humans. We use the [¹¹C]PHNO PET ligand, which enables exploration of dopamine-related parameters in striatal regions, and for the first time in extrastriatal regions, that are known to be associated with distinctive functions and disorders. Our methods involve robust approaches for the manual and automated delineation of these brain regions, in terms of structural and functional organisation, using information from structural and diffusion MRI images. These data have been combined with [¹¹C]PHNO PET data for quantitative dopamine imaging. Our investigation has revealed the distribution and the relative density of the D3R and D2R sites of the dopamine D2-like receptor family, in healthy humans. In addition, we have demonstrated that the release of dopamine has a functional rather than a structural specificity and that the relative densities of the D3R and D2R sites do not drive this specificity. We have also shown that the dopamine D3R receptor is primarily distributed in regions that have a central role in reward and addiction. A finding that supports theories that assigns a primarily limbic role to the D3R.

Bien que le passage du temps altère le cerveau, la cognition ne suit pas nécessairement le même destin. En effet, il existe des mécanismes compensatoires qui permettent de préserver la cognition (réserve cognitive) malgré le vieillissement. Les personnes âgées peuvent utiliser de nouveaux circuits neuronaux (compensation neuronale) ou des circuits existants moins susceptibles aux effets du vieillissement (réserve neuronale) pour maintenir un haut niveau de performance cognitive. Toutefois, la façon dont ces mécanismes affectent l’activité corticale et striatale lors de tâches impliquant des changements de règles (set-shifting) et durant le traitement sémantique et phonologique n’a pas été extensivement explorée. Le but de cette thèse est d’explorer comment le vieillissement affecte les patrons d’activité cérébrale dans les processus exécutifs d’une part et dans l’utilisation de règles lexicales d’autre part. Pour cela nous avons utilisé l’imagerie par résonance magnétique fonctionnelle (IRMf) lors de la performance d’une tâche lexicale analogue à celle du Wisconsin. Cette tâche a été fortement liée à de l’activité fronto-stritale lors des changements de règles, ainsi qu’à la mobilisation de régions associées au traitement sémantique et phonologique lors de décisions sémantiques et phonologiques, respectivement. Par conséquent, nous avons comparé l’activité cérébrale de jeunes individus (18 à 35 ans) à celle d’individus âgés (55 à 75 ans) lors de l’exécution de cette tâche. Les deux groupes ont montré l’implication de boucles fronto-striatales associées à la planification et à l’exécution de changements de règle. Toutefois, alors que les jeunes semblaient activer une « boucle cognitive » (cortex préfrontal ventrolatéral, noyau caudé et thalamus) lorsqu’ils se voyaient indiquer qu’un changement de règle était requis, et une « boucle motrice » (cortex postérieur préfrontal et putamen) lorsqu’ils devaient effectuer le changement, les participants âgés montraient une activation des deux boucles lors de l’exécution des changements de règle seulement. Les jeunes adultes tendaient à présenter une augmentation de l’activité du cortex préfrontal ventrolatéral, du gyrus fusiforme, du lobe ventral temporale et du noyau caudé lors des décisions sémantiques, ainsi que de l’activité au niveau de l’aire de Broca postérieur, de la junction temporopariétale et du cortex moteur lors de décisions phonologiques. Les participants âgés ont montré de l’activité au niveau du cortex préfrontal latéral et moteur durant les deux types de décisions lexicales. De plus, lorsque les décisions sémantiques et phonologiques ont été comparées entre elles, les jeunes ont montré des différences significatives au niveau de plusieurs régions cérébrales, mais pas les âgés. En conclusion, notre première étude a montré, lors du set-shifting, un délai de l’activité cérébrale chez les personnes âgées. Cela nous a permis de conceptualiser l’Hypothèse Temporelle de Compensation (troisième manuscrit) qui consiste en l’existence d’un mécanisme compensatoire caractérisé par un délai d’activité cérébrale lié au vieillissement permettant de préserver la cognition au détriment de la vitesse d’exécution. En ce qui concerne les processus langagiers (deuxième étude), les circuits sémantiques et phonologiques semblent se fusionner dans un seul circuit chez les individus âgés, cela représente vraisemblablement des mécanismes de réserve et de compensation neuronales qui permettent de préserver les habilités langagières. / As the one’s brain is structurally altered by the passage of time, cognition does not have to suffer the same faith, at least not to the same extent. Indeed, age-related compensatory mechanisms allow for some cognitive preservation. The elderly can therefore use new compensatory neuronal networks (neural compensation) or flexible pathways that are less susceptible to disruption (neural reserve) in order to maintain high levels of performance (cognitive reserve) during cognitive tasks. However, how these mechanisms affect cortical and striatal activity during set-shifting as well as during semantic and phonological processing has not been extensively explored. The purpose of this thesis was therefore to investigate how aging affects patterns of neural activity related to executive processes on the one hand and the use of lexical rules on the other. To this end we used functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) during the performance of a lexical analogue of the Wisconsin Card-Sorting Test. This task has been shown to strongly depend on fronto-striatal activity during set-shifting as well as on regions associated with semantic and phonological processing during semantic and phonological decisions, respectively. Two groups participated in our fMRI protocol: young individuals (18 to 35 years old) and older individuals (55 to 75 years old). Both younger and older individuals revealed significant fronto-striatal loop activity associated with planning and execution of set-shifts. However, while the younger group showed the involvement of a “cognitive loop” (including the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, the caudate nucleus and the thalamus) when instructed that a set-shift would be required on following trial, and the involvement of a “motor loop” (including the posterior prefrontal cortex and the putamen) when the set-shift had to be performed, the older participants showed significant activation of both loops during the execution of the set-shift (matching periods) only. Young adults tended to present increased activity in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, the fusiform gyrus, the ventral temporal lobe and the caudate nucleus during semantic decisions and in the posterior Broca’s area, the temporoparietal junction and the motor cortical regions during phonological decisions, older individuals showed increased activity in the lateral prefrontal cortex and motor cortical regions during both semantic and phonological decisions. Furthermore, when semantic and phonological decisions were contrasted with each other, younger individuals showed significant brain activity differences in several regions while older individuals did not. In conclusion, our first study showed an age-related delayed cerebral activation phenomenon during set-shifting (previously observed only in few memory and language tasks). Based on those findings, we conceptualised the Temporal Hypothesis of Compensation (third manuscript) which is the existence of a compensatory mechanism characterised by age-related delayed cerebral activation allowing for cognitive performance to be preserved at the expense of speed processing. Regarding language processing (second study), semantic and phonological routes seem to merge into a single pathway in the elderly; these findings represent most probably neural reserve/compensation mechanisms on which the elderly rely to maintain an adequate level of performance.

A esquizofrenia é uma desordem altamente incapacitante que atinge cerca de 1% da população, envolvendo desequilíbrio da neurotransmissão dopaminérgica e uma hipofunção glutamatérgica. Portadores dessa doença apresentam deficiência do processamento de informações caracterizada por prejuízo no teste de inibição pré-pulso (prepulse inhibition - PPI). Essa condição pode ser reproduzida em modelos experimentais, pelo tratamento com psicoestimulantes, como a anfetamina (ANF) e atenuado/revertido pelo tratamento com antipsicóticos. O canabidiol (CBD) é o principal componente não psicotomimético da Cannabis sativa. Estudos clínicos e pré-clínicos sugerem que o CBD apresenta perfil antipsicótico, com baixa indução de efeitos adversos. Contudo, até o momento poucos estudos foram realizados com o objetivo de investigar os mecanismos farmacológicos e/ou moleculares envolvidos nesse perfil. Os prováveis mecanismos envolvidos com as propriedades antipsicóticas do CBD parecem envolver a ativação de receptores TRPV1 e o aumento da sinalização do endocanabinoide anandamida. No presente estudo, demonstramos que os receptores TRPV1 e o aumento da disponibilidade de anandamida parecem participar do perfil antipsicótico do CBD. Nessas investigações, não observamos participação dos receptores 5-HT1A. A microinjeção de CBD no córtex pré-frontal (CPF), estrutura envolvida com a fisiopatologia da esquizofrenia e um provável sítio para ação de antipsicóticos, não atenuou o prejuízo induzido por ANF no PPI. Recentemente, mecanismos epigenéticos, como a metilação do DNA, têm sido associados à fisiopatologia da esquizofrenia. Nesse sentido, avaliamos o envolvimento da metilação do DNA em estruturas envolvidas com a neurobiologia da esquizofrenia regulada por CBD, sobre as respostas comportamentais induzidas por drogas psicotomiméticas. Verificamos que a ANF causa um aumento da metilação global no estriado ventral, efeito bloqueado pelo pré-tratamento com CBD e de forma semelhante com o antipsicótico clozapina (CLZ). Não observamos alterações na metilação global no CPF. O tratamento com MK-801 não alterou a metilação global nas duas estruturas anteriormente citadas. Protocolo experimental semelhante foi utilizado em mais duas abordagens: (i) a expressão do fator neurotrófico do cérebro (BDNF), relacionado com a manutenção, crescimento e diferenciação dos neurônios está aumentada no hipocampo dos animais tratados com a associação CBD e ANF, padrão semelhante foi observado com a associação CLZ e ANF. (ii) a expressão de fosfo-histona acetilada, um marcador que indica alterações na cromatina, intimamente ligada com as alterações da expressão gênica está aumentada no núcleo acumbens e CPF dos animais tratados com a associação CBD e ANF. Os dados aqui apresentados sugerem que os receptores TRPV1 e o endocanabinoide anandamida parecem estar envolvidos com o perfil antipsicótico do CBD. Pela primeira vez foi demonstrado que tanto o pré-tratamento com CBD ou CLZ podem alterar o aumento da metilação global de DNA induzido por ANF. Além disso, a expressão de BDNF no hipocampo e a expressão de fosfo-histona acetilada podem ser outros mecanismos que merecem atenção em relação ao perfil antipsicótico do CBD. / Schizophrenia is a highly disabling disorder that affects about 1% of the population and involves impaired dopaminergic neurotransmission and glutamatergic hypofunction. Patients with this disorder have a deficiency in information processing characterized by disruption in the prepulse inhibition (PPI) test. This condition can be reproduced in experimental models by treatment with psychostimulants such as amphetamine and attenuated / reversed by treatment with antipsychotics. Cannabidiol (CBD) is the main non-psychotomimetic component of Cannabis sativa. Clinical and preclinical studies suggest that CBD has an antipsychotic profile, with low induction of adverse effects. However, to date, few studies have been carried out to investigate the pharmacological and / or molecular mechanisms involved in this outcome. The likely mechanisms involved with the antipsychotic properties of CBD appear to involve activation of TRPV1 receptors and increased endocannabinoid anandamide signaling. In the present study, we demonstrated that TRPV1 receptors and the increased availability of anandamide appear to participate in the CBD antipsychotic profile. In these investigations, we did not observe participation of 5-HT1A receptors. Microinjection of CBD in the prefrontal cortex, structure involved in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and a probable site of antipsychotic action, did not attenuate the amphetamine-induced disruption in PPI. Recently, epigenetic mechanisms, such as DNA methylation, have been associated with the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. In this sense, we also evaluated the involvement of DNA methylation in structures involved with the neurobiology of CBD-regulated schizophrenia on behavioral responses induced by psychotomimetic drugs. We found that amphetamine causes increased global methylation in the ventral striatum, an effect blocked by pre-treatment with CBD and similarly with the antipsychotic clozapine. We did not observe changes in the global methylation in prefrontal cortex. Treatment with MK-801 did not alter the global methylation in the two aforementioned structures. Similar experimental protocol was used in two other approaches: (i) brain neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression, related to the maintenance, growth and differentiation of neurons is increased in the hippocampus of animals treated with CBD and amphetamine; a similar pattern was observed with the association clozapine and amphetamine. (ii) the expression of acetylated phospho-histone, a marker indicating changes in chromatin, closely linked to changes in gene expression is increased in the nucleus acumbens and CPF in animals treated with the CBD and amphetamine combination. The data presented here suggest TRPV1 receptors and the endocannabinoid anandamide seem to be involved with the antipsychotic profile of CBD. For the first time it has been shown that both pre-treatment with CBD or clozapine may alter the increase in overall DNA methylation induced by amphetamine. In addition, the expression of BDNF in the hippocampus and the expression of acetylated phospho-histone may be different mechanisms that deserve attention in relation to the antipsychotic profile of CBD.

兒茶酚胺類神經傳遞系統被認為與包括記憶學習等行為功能有很重要的關連，在記憶多元化理論的假設下，該神經系統與其它者對於特定記憶學習行為應有再確認之必要。過去對於空間性記憶的研究，其相關支持證據所依據之實驗操弄泰半集中在海馬迴系統上。但仍有部份研究指出大腦中的其他區域可能同樣與一般記憶的運作有密切的關連。特別是兒茶酚胺系統所在之紋狀總體組織部位（包括尾狀核與阿控博核），vP A僅與感覺接受、運動反應及增強作用等機制有關外，同時可能也扮演影響記憶表現的重要因子。本研究使用慾求性的八角迷津為工具，藉其地點學習與反應學習這兩種不同的迷津作業，及利用兒茶酚胺類的藥物或神經毒素，探討相關的記憶習得與記憶保持歷程所造成的影響。實驗的操弄包括：(1) 迷津作業之地點學習與反應學習以探討這兩種記憶之行為機制。(2) 記憶習得與記憶保持階段以瞭解這兩種迷津作業所引發記憶之全部歷程。(3) 中樞（阿控博核或尾狀核）神經毒素之破壞以及周邊藥物注射以確認兒茶酚胺類藥物對於記憶之神經藥理機制。本研究分為兩大實驗進行，實驗一以地點學習為主，實驗二以反應學習為主。實驗結果可以簡單歸納如下：(1) 兩 種學習作業的記憶策略有不同的習得歷程及需要不同的處理訊息。(2) 在迷津學習前用神經毒素 6-OHDA 破壞尾狀核或阿控博核，皆會影響地點記憶的習得，但對於反應記憶的習得，則需要同時破壞尾狀核及阿控博核才有類似的干擾效果。(3) 相對於神經毒素 6-OHDA的干擾效果，DSP-4皆不影響地點學習與反應學習的習得歷程。(4) 在記憶保持階段中，周邊注射兒茶酚胺類藥物 d-amphetamine、haloperidol 與 propranolol均會干擾地點記憶的提取，但卻不影響反應記憶的提取表現。(5) 於地點記憶與反應記憶習得後，給予尾狀核加阿控博核的雙側 6-OHDA 注射均不影響這兩種記憶的提取表現。實驗結果顯示兒茶酚胺類神經傳導系統對於記憶功能具有明顯的影響，其中紋狀體扮演了相當重要的角色。相對於不影響記憶提取之歷程，紋狀體的破壞對記憶習得歷程有阻滯之效果，其內部之尾狀核與阿控博核分別依不同之迷津作業具有相異之效果，且多巴胺系統較正腎上腺素系統明顯的參與了影響效果，這些結果顯示兒茶酚胺類神經傳導系統與記憶表現有密切的關連。 / Catecholamine (CA) neurotransmission systems are critically involved in the control of many behavioral functions including learning and memory. The role of CA in mediating learning and memory is recently focused on the basis of multiple memory hypothesis. In addition to the previous finding of spatial memory relevant to the hippocampal areas, the striatum containing the caudate nucleus and the nucleus of accumbens is thought to be important for executing the learning and memory function. By the use of radial arm maze (RAM), the present study examined the effects of CA related neurotoxins and drugs on the acquisition and retention stages of both place and response tasks. Two major parts of experiments were designed to reveal the neurobehavioral mechanisms for the place and response tasks of RAM. Food-deprivated rats were trained to enter the arms baited with chocolate in the eight-arm maze. Specific four arms were baited for each rat in the place task, while randomly selected four arms each cued with a piece of sand paper on the arm entrance were baited for the rat in the response task.The results can be summarized as followings. (1) Differen behavioral processes were shown in performing the place and response tasks. (2) The acquisition deficits were significantly produced by 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) lesion on either caudate or accumbens for the place task, whereas the acquisition of response task was only impaired by 6-OHDA lesions of both caudate and accumbens together. (3) In contrast to 6-OHDA, adrenergic neurotoxin DSP-4 did not significantly affect subjects to acquire either task. (4) During the retention stage, the performance of place task was significantly disrupted by d-amphetamine, haloperidol, or propranolol. However, this was not the case for the retrieval of response task. (5) Once acquired, neither place nor response task performamce could be influenced by 6-OHDA simultaneously administered on the caudate and accumbens areas.Taken together, these data collected from RAM support the idea that the striatal CA is essential for the leraning and memory. Shift of the CA neurotransmission function induced by either 6-OHDA lesions or relevant drugs can disrupt the RAM behavior, which impairment to be detectable is depended on the learning task itself as well as the time of a specific task being leraned.

瑞特氏症(Rett syndrome, RTT)為第二型甲基化CPG結合蛋白(2methyl-CpG binding protein 2, MeCP2)基因發生突變所造成的神經發育疾病，其症狀包含了嚴重的運動障礙及自閉傾向等特徵。由於紋狀體(striatum)為運動控制的重要腦區，我們假設RTT的運動障礙主要為紋狀體的功能異常所造成，故利用RTT模式小鼠來研究紋狀體是否為RTT運動障礙的致病原因。利用敞箱試驗(open field test)及加速滾輪測試(accelerating rotarod task)結果發現，Mecp2基因剔除小鼠的活動力明顯下降，並伴隨有運動協調能力的缺失。以免疫組織染色法及西方點墨法分別標定紋狀體中的mu-opioid receptor及calbindin蛋白，發現二者表現量均有明顯下降，然而表現parvalbumin的中間神經元細胞數目卻大量增加。我們發現在紋狀體中多巴胺D2受體的表現量顯著增加，但多巴胺合成酶tyrosine hydroxylase與多巴胺訊號傳遞下游分子DARPP-32蛋白並沒有明顯減少。為了更進一步確認紋狀體的致病角色，我們利用特定在紋狀體中缺少MeCP2的「Mecp2條件缺失小鼠」，觀察其運動行為的改變。結果發現，Mecp2條件缺失小鼠不管是在活動力或是運動學習上都表現出和Mecp2基因剔除小鼠相似的運動障礙，顯示紋狀體所調控的正常活動力及運動學習能力皆需要MeCP2的參與。我們接著進一步探討是否擁有完整MeCP2表現的紋狀體就足以執行正常的運動功能。當Mecp2基因剔除小鼠的紋狀體重新表現MeCP2(即「Mecp2條件回復小鼠」)，MeCP2缺失所造成的運動障礙可被回復到接近野生型小鼠運動能力的正常水準。顯示紋狀體中MeCP2的存在為正常運動控制的充要條件。在以cyclin-dependent kinase-like 5 (Cdkl5)突變小鼠研究MeCP2的磷酸化是否會影響到運動行為，發現Cdkl5突變小鼠在出生早期及成年時期皆存在與Mecp2基因剔除小鼠一致的運動協調能力缺失。免疫組織染色及西方點墨法結果顯示，Cdkl5突變小鼠的紋狀體中mu-opioid receptor表現量有明顯下降，但parvalbumin的中間神經元數目並無改變，而在大腦皮質中多巴胺轉運子DAT1蛋白表現量明顯上升。CDKL5突變造成與RTT相似症狀的原因還須更進一步的探討。綜上所述，本研究為「紋狀體異常可能為RTT運動障礙的主要致病原因」提供動物模式的實驗證據，並提供了一個新的觀點用於未來治療RTT或防止其症狀的惡化。

DYRK1A es uno de los principales genes candidatos que podrían explicar algunos de los defectos neurológicos asociados al fenotipo Síndrome de Down (SD); desde el retraso mental, rasgo común a todos los individuos con SD hasta los déficits motores, también muy frecuentes entre la población con SD. Con el fin de validar la implicación de DYRK1A en el fenotipo SD se ha desarrollado una estrategia de terapia génica basada en la reducción de la expresión del gen mediante interferencia del RNA, en el modelo transgénico TgDyrk1A, y se han evaluado los efectos en el fenotipo motor de estos animales. Además se ha estudiado la implicación de los receptores glutamatérgicos de tipo NMDA en las alteraciones motoras descritas en el modelo. Los resultados obtenidos en este trabajo ponen de manifiesto la validez de la estrategia desarrollada y apuntan a una desregulación de los receptores de NMDA como uno de los mecanismos moleculares subyacentes de las disfunción motora presente en el modelo TgDyrk1A. / The are growing evidences to consider DYRK1A as a candidate gene for some of the neurological alterations present in DS phenotype such as mental retardation which is a common feature in the syndrome, or motor deficits which show a high prevalence among DS individuals. With the aim to validate the contribution of Dyrk1A to DS phenothype, we have developped a gene therapy strategy based on RNA interference to reduce gene expression in the transgenic model TgDyrk1A, and we have evaluated the effects in the motor phenotype of these animals. Moreover, we have studied the implication of the NMDA glutamate receptor in the motor alterations present in the model. The results obtained validate the strategy developped and suggest the deregulation of the NMDA receptor as one of the main causes underlying motor dysfunction in TgDyrk1A mice.

La stimulation à haute fréquence (SHF) du noyau sous-thalamique (NST) permet de traiter l'ensemble des symptômes moteurs de la maladie de Parkinson (MP), mais aussi d'atténuer l'apparition les dyskinésies L-Dopa induites, grâce notamment à une réduction massive, voire complète, des prises de L-Dopa chez les patients stimulés. Toutefois, les mécanismes in fine qui sous-tendent l'efficacité thérapeutique de la SHF du NST chez l'homme ne sont pas encore élucidés, tout comme les possibles interactions pouvant exister entre les effets induits par la SHF du NST et ceux (synergiques ou non) d'un traitement à la L-DOPA.<br />Notre travail a porté principalement sur l'animal anesthésié, sain ou hémiparkinsonien, traité de manière chronique ou aiguë à la L-Dopa, et soumis ou non à la SHF du NST. Dans une première partie expérimentale, nous avons analysé chez le rat sain les modifications neurochimiques (variations des contenus en glutamate et en GABA mesurées par microdialyse intracérébrale) induites par la SHF du NST sur des structures situées à distance du NST mais impliquées directement ou indirectement dans les circuits moteurs, comme la region Fr3 du cortex moteur, le colliculus supérieur et le noyau ventro-médian du thalamus.Dans une deuxième partie, nous avons essayé de déterminer si la SHF du NST pouvait modifier la réponse à la L-Dopa (suite à un traitement chronique ou aigu) sur les contenus en dopamine (et ses métabolites DOPAC et HVA), en glutamate et en GABA. Les principaux résultats obtenus mettent en exergue une interaction synergique entre les effets d'une injection unique de L-Dopa et ceux induits par la SHF du NST. En effet, il apparaît que cette stimulation stabilise les taux élevés de dopamine suite au traitement L-Dopa, retardant ainsi son métabolisme. Ces résultats pourraient donc apporter de arguments intéressants concernant les effets bénéfiques de la SHF du NST observés chez les malades parkinsoniens, notamment dans la stabilisation des fluctuations motrices. <br />Les données obtenues au cours de ce travail doctoral apportent de nouveaux arguments pour la compréhension des mécanismes de la SHF du NST, et amènent de nouvelles perspectives justifiant l'intérêt thérapeutique de la SHF dans la maladie de Parkinson.

A major challenge in the field of neuroscience is to link behavior with specific neuronal circuitries and cellular events. One way of facing this challenge is to identify unique cellular markers and thus have the ability to, through various mouse genetics tools, mimic, manipulate and control various aspects of neuronal activity to decipher their correlation to behavior. The Vesicular Glutamate Transporter 2 (VGLUT2) packages glutamate into presynaptic vesicles for axonal terminal release. In this thesis, VGLUT2 was used to specifically target cell populations within the basal ganglia of mice with the purpose of investigating its connectivity, function and involvement in behavior. The motor and limbic loops of the basal ganglia are important for processing of voluntary movement and emotions. During such physiological events, dopamine plays a central role in modulating the activity of these systems. The brain reward system is mainly formed by dopamine projections from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the ventral striatum. Certain dopamine neurons within the VTA exhibit the ability to co-release dopamine and glutamate. In paper I, glutamate and dopamine co-release was targeted and our results demonstrate that the absence of VGLUT2 in dopamine neurons leads to perturbations of reward consumption and reward-associated memory, probably due to reduced DA release observed in the striatum as detected by in vivo chronoamperometry. In papers II and IV, VGLUT2 in a specific subpopulation within the subthalamic nucleus (STN) was identified and targeted. Based on the described role of the STN in movement control, we hypothesized that the mice would be hyperlocomotive. As shown in paper II, this was indeed the case. In paper IV, a putative reward-related phenotype was approached and we could show reduced operant-self administration of sugar and altered dopamine release levels suggesting a role for the STN in reward processes. In paper III, we investigated and identified age- and sex-dimorphisms in dopamine kinetics in the dorsal striatum of one of the most commonly used mouse lines worldwide, the C57/Bl6J. Our results point to the importance of taking these dimorphisms into account when utilizing the C57/Bl6J strain as model for neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders.

The striatum represents the main input nucleus of the basal ganglia, a system of subcortical nuclei critically involved into motor control and motivational processes and altered in several conditions such as Parkinson’s diseases or drug addiction. The projection neurons of the striatum are GABAergic (γ-aminobutyric acid) medium-sized spiny neurons (MSNs), and account for the large majority of striatal neurons, while interneurons represent about 10% of striatal cells. The MSNs are subdivided into two subpopulations that form two main efferent pathways: the striatonigral and striatopallidal neurons. The striatonigral MSNs project to the entopeduncular nucleus (EP) and substancia nigra pars reticulata (SNr) (direct pathway) and co-express dopamine D1 receptors (D1R) and substance P neuropeptide (SP). On the other hand, striatopallidal MSNs project to the lateral globus pallidus (LGP) (indirect pathway) and co-express dopamine D2 receptor (D2R), adenosine A2A receptor (A2AR) and enkephalin (Enk). The D1R striatonigral and D2R striatopallidal MSNs are equal in number and shape and are mosaically distributed through all the striatum. The dorsal striatum is mainly involved in motor control and learning while the ventral striatum is crucial for motivational processes. In view of the still debating respective functions of projection D2R-striatopallidal and D1R-striatonigral neurons and striatal interneurons, both in motor control and learning of skills and habits but also in more cognitive processes such as motivation, we were interested in the development of models allowing the removal of selective striatum neuronal populations in adult animal brain. Because of the mosaical organisation of the striatum, a targeting of specific neuronal type, with techniques such as chemical lesions or surgery, is still impossible. Taking advantage of new transgenic approaches, the goal of the present work was to generate and/or to initiate the characterization of genetic models in which a selective subtype of striatal neuron can be ablated in an inducible way. We used a transgenic approach in which mice express a monkey diphtheria toxin (DT) receptor (DTR) in D2R-striatopallidal or D1R-striatonigral neurons. Local stereotactic injections of DT can then induce selective neuronal ablation in functionally different striatal areas.<p>We first investigated functions of D2R-striatopallidal neurons in motor control and drug reinforcement by their selective ablation in the entire striatum or restricted to the ventral striatum. This DTR strategy produced selective D2R striatopallidal MSN ablation with integrity of the other striatal neurons as well as the striatal dopaminergic function. D2R MSN ablation in the entire striatum induced permanent hyperlocomotion while ventral striatum-restricted ablation increased amphetamine place preference.<p>We next compared respective roles of D2R-striatopallidal and D1R-striatonigral neurons in motor control and skill learning in functionally different striatum subregions.<p>Finally, to target nitrergic interneurons of the striatum, we developed a bacterial artificial chromosome genetic strain in which the cre-recombinase expression is under the control of the neuronal nitric oxide gene promoter.<p><p>Altogether, those results show that DTR expression and DT local injections is an efficient and flexible strategy to ablate selective striatum neuronal types with spatial resolution. We provide the first direct experimental evidences that D2R striatopallidal neurons inhibit both locomotor and drug-reinforcement processes and that D2R and D1R MSNs in different striatum subregions have distinct functions in motor control and motor skill learning. Those results strongly support a cell-type and topographic functional organization of the striatum and underscore the need for characterization of the specific cellular and molecular modifications that are induced in D2R and D1R MSNs during drug-reinforcement or procedural learning.<p> / Doctorat en Sciences médicales / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished