The use of non-destructive testing (NDT) methods was needed for the conservation studies of historic timber structures. The aim of this study was to develop combined use of ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) measurements and infrared (IR) thermography, together with visual analyses for soundness assessment of timber. An important timber structure in Ankara, Aslanhane Mosque and traditional timber dwellings, in AyaS and istiklal District were selected for in-situ analyses. Representative laboratory samples such as mud brick, fired brick, mud mortar, mud plaster, lime plaster, historic timbers of different species and some new timbers were used for analyses in the laboratory to develop reference data for in-situ analyses. This study has shown that direct and indirect UPV measurements taken parallel to fiber direction were good at estimating the soundness of timber elements. UPV measurements taken from timber samples were affected by atmospheric humidity, at which the timber was in equilibrium with or by its water content, cuts of timber and type of species. Quantitative Infrared thermography (QIRT) was good at soundness assessment and defect inspection of timber. The study showed that, the even or heterogeneous distribution of surface temperatures, different thermal inertia characteristics, reflected by the rates of heating and cooling of materials and their ratios to sound timber were good parameters to assess the state of deterioration of timber elements, dampness problems and the compatibility of neighbouring materials with timber. The joint use of QIRT and UPV methods combined with laboratory data has enhanced the accuracy and effectiveness of the survey.

No description available.

Machine strength grading of structural timber is a sawmill process by which considerable value is added to sawn products. The principle of such grading is that the strength of a timber member is predicted on the basis of a so called indicating property (IP) which, in general, represents an averaged value of the modulus of elasticity (MOE) measured over a board length of about one meter or more. A limitation of today’s grading methods is that the accuracy of strength predictions is often rather poor, which results in a low degree of utilization as regards structural potential of sawn timber. However, it has for many years been well known to researchers that much better strength predictions can be made by using localized MOE values, determined over a very short length, as IP. Still, the determination of such values in a sawmill production environment has been technically very difficult to achieve. In the research presented in this thesis, dot laser scanning with high resolution was utilized for detection of local fibre orientation on the surfaces of timber members. Since wood is an orthotropic material with superior structural performance in the longitudinal fibre direction, information about fibre orientation was, in combination with beam theory and measured wood material properties, used to determine the bending MOE variation along boards. By application of an IP defined as the lowest MOE found along a board, more accurate strength predictions than what is obtained by common commercial grading techniques was attained. The thesis also involves flatwise wet gluing of Norway spruce side boards into laminated beams. As side boards, being cut from the outer parts of a log, have excellent structural properties it was not surprising to find that the beams had high strength and stiffness, even when laminations of sawfalling quality were used. The possibility of grading boards in a wet state by means of axial dynamic excitation was investigated with a positive result and application of simple grading rules resulted in considerable improvement of beam bending strength. Finally, bending MOE variation determined on the basis of laser scanned fibre directions was used for identification of weak sections in laminations. Elimination of such sections by means of finger jointing showed that average lamination strength of a board sample could be improved by more than 35 percent. / Hållfasthetssortering av konstruktionsvirke är en sågverksprocess som innebär att värdet av det sågade virket ökar väsentligt. Principen för denna typ av sortering är att styrkan hos ett virkesstycke predikteras med utgångspunkt från en så kallad indikerande egenskap (IP) som oftast representeras av medelvärdet av elasticitetsmodulen (E-modulen) mätt över en sträcka av minst en meter utmed virkesstyckets längd. De sorteringsmetoder som används idag ger ofta prediktioner med relativt låg noggrannhet, vilket innebär att endast en begränsad del av det sågade virkets konstruktiva potential kan utnyttjas. Det är dock väl känt att avsevärt bättre prediktioner kan erhållas genom att använda en lokal E-modul, uppmätt över en mycket kort sträcka, som IP. I dagsläget saknas dock teknik för att kunna bestämma ett sådant lokalt värde vid produktionshastighet i ett sågverk. I den forskning som presenteras i denna avhandling har punktlaserskanning med hög upplösning använts för att bestämma fiberriktningens variation på ytorna av virkesstycken. Eftersom trä är ett ortotropt material med högst styvhet och styrka i longitudinell fiberriktning ger skanningsresultaten värdefull information om hur dessa egenskaper varierar längs en planka. Genom att kombinera informationen om fiberriktning med uppmätta virkesegenskaper och klassisk balkteori, kan böjstyvhetens variation utmed en planka beräknas med hög upplösning och därefter omräknas till en E-modul i böjning. Med en IP definierad som det lägsta värdet på nämnda E-modul utmed en planka kan en högre noggrannhet i prediktionen av hållfasthet uppnås, jämfört med vad som kan erhållas med dagens sorteringsmetoder. Avhandlingen omfattar också limträbalkar tillverkade av sidobräder av gran limmade i rått tillstånd. Eftersom sidobräder sågas från de yttre delarna av en stock har de vanligtvis utmärkta konstruktiva egenskaper. Det var därför inte förvånande att balkarna uppvisade hög styrka och styvhet, även i de fall lamellerna var av sågfallande kvalitet. Möjligheten att med hjälp av axiell dynamisk excitering sortera sidobräder i rått tillstånd undersöktes med positivt resultat och genom att använda sorterade lameller kunde balkarnas styrka förbättras avsevärt. Den ovan beskrivna metoden att med utgångspunkt från bl.a. skannade fibervinklar bestämma styvhetens variation längs virkesstycken utnyttjades sedan för att identifiera svaga snitt i lameller av sidobräder. Genom att eliminera sådana snitt med hjälp av fingerskarvning kunde medelhållfastheten för ett stickprov sidobrädor höjas med mer än 35 %.

A madeira de floresta plantada se destaca no setor florestal e da construção civil, diante das restrições para o uso em larga escala das espécies tropicais. Devido ao rápido crescimento e as características inerentes às árvores, as propriedades mecânicas de espécies de floresta plantada são influenciadas pelas características de secagem e de crescimento. A norma brasileira ABNT NBR 7190: 1997 está em fase de revisão e, dentre os itens discutidos pela comissão científica estão os métodos de classificação visual e mecânica e a caracterização de resistência para peças em dimensões estruturais. O trabalho teve como objetivo propor classes de resistência de três espécies de madeira de floresta plantada (Eucalyptus urograndis, Pinus taeda e Schizolobium amazonicum (Paricá)) para uso estrutural. Foram realizados os ensaios de classificação visual e mecânica para peças estruturais e os ensaios de caracterização de resistência para que fosse possível estimar as propriedades mecânicas por meio da classe de resistência atribuída na classificação visual e mecânica. Os resultados foram testados estatisticamente para avaliar as propriedades mecânicas das classes de resistência de cada espécie e compará-las com as normas estrangeira e internacional. Com base nos resultados obtidos e nas análises estatísticas realizadas, foram propostas três classes de resistência para o Eucalyptus urograndis, duas classes de resistência para o Schizolobium amazonicum (Paricá) e para o Pinus taeda. / Timber from reforestation species are been used for civil construction, considering the restrictions on the large-scale use of tropical species. The mechanical properties of reforestation species are influenced by the drying and growth characteristics, due to the fast growth and the inherent characteristics of the trees. The Brazilian standard ABNT NBR 7190: 1997 is under review and among the items is being discussed by the scientific committee are the methods of visual and mechanical grading and the full-size testing for structural elements. The aim of this work was to propose strength classes of three timber species from reforestation species (Eucalyptus urograndis, Pinus taeda and Schizolobium amazonicum - Paricá) for structural use. Grading tests based on the visual and mechanical characteristics were performed and compared with the strength and stiffness properties making possible to estimate the mechanical properties by of the strength classes assigned in the visual and mechanical grading. The results were statistically tested to evaluate the mechanical properties for the strength classes of each species and to compare them with the foreign and international standards. According to the results obtained and the statistical analysis three strength classes were proposed for Eucalyptus urograndis, two strength classes for Schizolobium amazonicum (Paricá) and Pinus taeda.

A madeira de floresta plantada se destaca no setor florestal e da construção civil, diante das restrições para o uso em larga escala das espécies tropicais. Devido ao rápido crescimento e as características inerentes às árvores, as propriedades mecânicas de espécies de floresta plantada são influenciadas pelas características de secagem e de crescimento. A norma brasileira ABNT NBR 7190: 1997 está em fase de revisão e, dentre os itens discutidos pela comissão científica estão os métodos de classificação visual e mecânica e a caracterização de resistência para peças em dimensões estruturais. O trabalho teve como objetivo propor classes de resistência de três espécies de madeira de floresta plantada (Eucalyptus urograndis, Pinus taeda e Schizolobium amazonicum (Paricá)) para uso estrutural. Foram realizados os ensaios de classificação visual e mecânica para peças estruturais e os ensaios de caracterização de resistência para que fosse possível estimar as propriedades mecânicas por meio da classe de resistência atribuída na classificação visual e mecânica. Os resultados foram testados estatisticamente para avaliar as propriedades mecânicas das classes de resistência de cada espécie e compará-las com as normas estrangeira e internacional. Com base nos resultados obtidos e nas análises estatísticas realizadas, foram propostas três classes de resistência para o Eucalyptus urograndis, duas classes de resistência para o Schizolobium amazonicum (Paricá) e para o Pinus taeda. / Timber from reforestation species are been used for civil construction, considering the restrictions on the large-scale use of tropical species. The mechanical properties of reforestation species are influenced by the drying and growth characteristics, due to the fast growth and the inherent characteristics of the trees. The Brazilian standard ABNT NBR 7190: 1997 is under review and among the items is being discussed by the scientific committee are the methods of visual and mechanical grading and the full-size testing for structural elements. The aim of this work was to propose strength classes of three timber species from reforestation species (Eucalyptus urograndis, Pinus taeda and Schizolobium amazonicum - Paricá) for structural use. Grading tests based on the visual and mechanical characteristics were performed and compared with the strength and stiffness properties making possible to estimate the mechanical properties by of the strength classes assigned in the visual and mechanical grading. The results were statistically tested to evaluate the mechanical properties for the strength classes of each species and to compare them with the foreign and international standards. According to the results obtained and the statistical analysis three strength classes were proposed for Eucalyptus urograndis, two strength classes for Schizolobium amazonicum (Paricá) and Pinus taeda.

Large span timber trusses are usually built with glulam. One problem with large span glulam trusses is that the connections needed to transfer the load between truss members are often complex and expensive. Another issue is transportation. Building large span trusses out of structural timber instead, could be a way of simplifying the connections and at the same time increase the degree of on-site construction and thereby solving the transportation problem.In this study, a total of 18 laboratory tests were performed with the purpose of investigating the tensile strength and the load slip behavior of different connection designs for large span structural timber trusses. Six different test groups corresponding to six different connection designs were tested. The materials used include members made of C24 timber and gusset plates made of birch plywood, aluminum, and steel. Screws were used as fasteners for five test groups and adhesive was used for one group. The influence of different reinforcement techniques including reinforcement screws and added aluminum sheets was studied.The results showed a ductile failure behavior for all test groups except for the group where adhesive was used. However, a decrease of ductility was observed for groups were aluminum sheets were used on the outsides of the mid placed plywood gusset plate. A 12-17 % increase in capacity was observed due to the presence of aluminum sheets. The reinforcement screws had no significant effect on the capacity. However, the presence of reinforcement screws did lead to a reduction in scatter both regarding capacity and stiffness.

A classificação estrutural de peças de madeira possibilita melhor utilização do material, separando as peças de acordo com a sua resistência estimada. Nesse processo é feita a classificação visual, de grande importância no caso de madeiras do gênero pinus, e a classificação mecânica por meio de testes não destrutivos com objetivo de estimar o módulo de elasticidade. Com esse objetivo, além de ensaios de flexão estática, podem ser aplicados métodos dinâmicos baseados em medições das frequências naturais e densidade do material para a determinação do módulo de elasticidade da madeira. Nesse sentido o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a eficiência do aparelho portátil Brookhuis Micro Timber Grader (MTG) na estimativa do módulo de elasticidade por meio de ensaios não-destrutivos de vibração longitudinal. Para tanto, foi utilizado um lote de peças estruturais de madeira da espécie Pinus elliottii classificado visualmente. Os resultados obtidos por esse aparelho foram comparados com os resultados de módulo de elasticidade obtidos em ensaio de flexão estática. Tendo em vista a sua praticidade, é recomendável a utilização deste método para a classificação estrutural de peças serradas de madeira. A classificação visual agregada a classificação mecânica são essenciais para a utilização do Pinus em vigas laminadas coladas, construções industrializadas de madeira e do sistema construtivo em woodframe. / The structural grading of wood allows better use of the material, sorting the specimen according to their estimated strength. In this process the visual grading is a fundamental matter in use of the structural Pinus elliottii and also the mechanical grading obtained by non-destructive methods in order to estimate the modulus of elasticity. For this purpose, in addition to the static bending tests, dynamic methods based on measurement of the natural frequencies and density of the material to determining the modulus of elasticity (MOE) of timber can be applied. The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficiency of portable device Brookhuis Micro Timber Grader (MTG) in estimating the modulus of elasticity by non-destructive testing of longitudinal vibration. It was used structural pieces of wood species Pinus elliottii rated visually. The results obtained by this device was compared with the modulus of elasticity results obtained in static bending tests. Given its convenience and low cost, it is recommended to use this method for structural grading of timber sawn pieces. The visual and stress grading are essencial for the use of Pines in glued laminated timber, industrilization timber constructions and woodframe constructions.

Examensarbetet syftar till att hitta samband mellan ytliga sprickor hos virke, i form av dimensioner och karaktärer, som dagens maskinella avsyningssystem inte klarar av. Tyngdpunkten i projektet har legat på att identifiera eventuella samband mellan verkligt djup hos sprickor och de ytliga sprickmått som kan uppmätas med automatisk avsyning av WoodEye. I huvudsak har projektets praktiska undersökningar gått ut på att bestämma sprickors ytliga dimensioner, djup, typ och position med hjälp av automatisk avsyningsutrustning (WoodEye) samt genom manuell uppmätning i ett antal itusågade sprickzoner. Det provmaterial som använts i utförda försök och som legat till grund för efterföljande sprickanalyser har varit av sådan karaktär att det kunnat jämställas med konstruktionsvirke som normalt sett hållfasthetssorteras enligt europasstandard SS-EN 14081-1. I projektet har 568 sprickor, fördelade över 8 olika spricktyper, analyserats. Av erhållna resultat har det konstaterats att störst respektive minst medelbredd uppvisades hos kådlåpor respektive kantsprickor, störst respektive minst medellängd uppvisades hos splintsidesprickor respektive kådlåpor, samt att störst medeldjup uppvisades hos fäll-, kap- och stormsprickor. Vid analys av sprickors bredd och längd i relation till dess djup har inga entydiga samband kunnat påvisas. / This degree project aims to examine any connections between superficial cracks in timber, in terms of dimensions and characteristics, a matter insufficiently addressed by today's visual grading systems. The projects emphasis lies within the practical studies of cracks, characteristics and dimensions, within the acquired samples. In essence, the survey set out to determine superficial dimensions, depth, type and position of cracks by using a visual grading system (WoodEye), and by comparing the results by manually measuring a number of crosscutted cracks. The material used in the experiments and which formed the basis for subsequent analysis has been of such a nature that it could be equated with structural timber normally defined under the European Standard EN 14081-1. The project has encompassed the analysis of 568 examples of cracks consisting of 8 various types of cracks. By obtained results it has established that the greatest and smallest width is shown in resin pockets, respective side cracks, the greatest and least average height shown in sapwood cracks, respective resin pockets, and that the greatest average depth shown in cracks occurred from felling or hurricanes. From analysis of the cracks breadth and height in relation to depth no clear connection can be established.

<p>Examensarbetet syftar till att hitta samband mellan ytliga sprickor hos virke, i form av dimensioner och karaktärer, som dagens maskinella avsyningssystem inte klarar av. Tyngdpunkten i projektet har legat på att identifiera eventuella samband mellan verkligt djup hos sprickor och de ytliga sprickmått som kan uppmätas med automatisk avsyning av WoodEye. I huvudsak har projektets praktiska undersökningar gått ut på att bestämma sprickors ytliga dimensioner, djup, typ och position med hjälp av automatisk avsyningsutrustning (WoodEye) samt genom manuell uppmätning i ett antal itusågade sprickzoner. Det provmaterial som använts i utförda försök och som legat till grund för efterföljande sprickanalyser har varit av sådan karaktär att det kunnat jämställas med konstruktionsvirke som normalt sett hållfasthetssorteras enligt europasstandard SS-EN 14081-1.</p><p>I projektet har 568 sprickor, fördelade över 8 olika spricktyper, analyserats. Av erhållna resultat har det konstaterats att störst respektive minst medelbredd uppvisades hos kådlåpor respektive kantsprickor, störst respektive minst medellängd uppvisades hos splintsidesprickor respektive kådlåpor, samt att störst medeldjup uppvisades hos fäll-, kap- och stormsprickor. Vid analys av sprickors bredd och längd i relation till dess djup har inga entydiga samband kunnat påvisas.</p> / <p>This degree project aims to examine any connections between superficial cracks in timber, in terms of dimensions and characteristics, a matter insufficiently addressed by today's visual grading systems. The projects emphasis lies within the practical studies of cracks, characteristics and dimensions, within the acquired samples. In essence, the survey set out to determine superficial dimensions, depth, type and position of cracks by using a visual grading system (WoodEye), and by comparing the results by manually measuring a number of crosscutted cracks. The material used in the experiments and which formed the basis for subsequent analysis has been of such a nature that it could be equated with structural timber normally defined under the European Standard EN 14081-1.</p><p>The project has encompassed the analysis of 568 examples of cracks consisting of 8 various types of cracks. By obtained results it has established that the greatest and smallest width is shown in resin pockets, respective side cracks, the greatest and least average height shown in sapwood cracks, respective resin pockets, and that the greatest average depth shown in cracks occurred from felling or hurricanes. From analysis of the cracks breadth and height in relation to depth no clear connection can be established.</p>

A classificação estrutural de peças de madeira possibilita melhor utilização do material, separando as peças de acordo com a sua resistência estimada. Nesse processo é feita a classificação visual, de grande importância no caso de madeiras do gênero pinus, e a classificação mecânica por meio de testes não destrutivos com objetivo de estimar o módulo de elasticidade. Com esse objetivo, além de ensaios de flexão estática, podem ser aplicados métodos dinâmicos baseados em medições das frequências naturais e densidade do material para a determinação do módulo de elasticidade da madeira. Nesse sentido o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a eficiência do aparelho portátil Brookhuis Micro Timber Grader (MTG) na estimativa do módulo de elasticidade por meio de ensaios não-destrutivos de vibração longitudinal. Para tanto, foi utilizado um lote de peças estruturais de madeira da espécie Pinus elliottii classificado visualmente. Os resultados obtidos por esse aparelho foram comparados com os resultados de módulo de elasticidade obtidos em ensaio de flexão estática. Tendo em vista a sua praticidade, é recomendável a utilização deste método para a classificação estrutural de peças serradas de madeira. A classificação visual agregada a classificação mecânica são essenciais para a utilização do Pinus em vigas laminadas coladas, construções industrializadas de madeira e do sistema construtivo em woodframe. / The structural grading of wood allows better use of the material, sorting the specimen according to their estimated strength. In this process the visual grading is a fundamental matter in use of the structural Pinus elliottii and also the mechanical grading obtained by non-destructive methods in order to estimate the modulus of elasticity. For this purpose, in addition to the static bending tests, dynamic methods based on measurement of the natural frequencies and density of the material to determining the modulus of elasticity (MOE) of timber can be applied. The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficiency of portable device Brookhuis Micro Timber Grader (MTG) in estimating the modulus of elasticity by non-destructive testing of longitudinal vibration. It was used structural pieces of wood species Pinus elliottii rated visually. The results obtained by this device was compared with the modulus of elasticity results obtained in static bending tests. Given its convenience and low cost, it is recommended to use this method for structural grading of timber sawn pieces. The visual and stress grading are essencial for the use of Pines in glued laminated timber, industrilization timber constructions and woodframe constructions.