The Pacific-North American plate boundary is typified by transpression and convergence, yet the relationship between interplate deformation and long-term crustal shortening is not fully understood. The continuous belt of rugged topography that extends along the entire plate boundary is generally associated with oblique tectonic plate motion, strong interplate coupling, and terrane accretion, but relating plate boundary orogenesis to variations in plate geometry and behavior requires detailed case studies. The northern San Gabriel Mountains along the San Andreas fault and the Chugach-Kenai Mountains above the Aleutian subduction zone are located along highly tectonically active sections of the Pacific-North American plate boundary and have not been studied from the context of long-term landscape development. To determine whether mountain building along these sections of the plate boundary reflects recent, rapid exhumation as observed in bordering mountain belts, low-temperature thermochronometry and topographic analyses were applied to each area. In the northern San Gabriel Mountains, apatite (U-Th)/He ages are >10 Ma along narrow crystalline ridges topped by low-slope erosional surfaces located within ~5 km of the San Andreas fault zone. In the Chugach-Kenai Mountains, the youngest apatite (U-Th)/He ages (~5 Ma) are an order of magnitude older than those from the Yakutat collision zone to the east, despite the presence of a continuous swath of glaciated, rugged topography between the two areas. Exhumation rates inferred from these ages are <1 mm/yr, suggesting that there has been minimal recent denudation in the northern San Gabriel and Chugach-Kenai Mountains. The lack of evidence for recent mountain building in both of these case studies implies that interplate deformation is heterogeneous and that other factors (secondary structures, climate) besides plate kinematics and topographic character must be considered for understanding landscape development. / Ph. D.

Liquefaction is one of the major causes of ground failures during an earthquake. Recent evidence shows that the existing variants of the "simplified" liquefaction evaluation procedure lead to inaccurate results for megathrust earthquakes in subduction interfaces. To overcome this drawback and to achieve better prediction of liquefaction cases in subduction zones, this research intends to develop new empirical models that could be used for the prediction of liquefaction triggering in subduction zones. Towards this goal, new models for number of equivalent cycles (n_eq) and stress-reduction factor (r_d) have been proposed. The models are developed by regressing site response data obtained from 254 pairs of subduction ground motions and 77 representative soil profiles. To account for tectonic differences and magnitude scaling, separate models are developed for interface and intraslab earthquakes. The uncertainties involved in the proposed models are quantified through standard deviations of regression coefficients, event, site, and residual terms. The resulting models differ from other published models, especially the model for number of equivalent cycles. It was found that n_eq is greatly influenced by the fundamental site period. The model for r_d predicts higher values at shallow depths and lower values at deeper layers than other published models. Comparing the factors of safety against liquefaction with those from other existing models revealed that the use of models proposed in this research is more likely to reduce the "false positives" in liquefaction predictions, especially when design ground motion acceleration is high. / Master of Science / During earthquake shaking, loose saturated sands may lose strength and behave more like a liquid than a solid. This phenomenon is referred to liquefaction. Liquefaction has been responsible for infrastructure failure during past earthquakes, thus leading to major economic losses. This prompts the prediction and mitigation of potential liquefaction effects in a building site. However, the current state-of-the-practice for predicting liquefaction is inaccurate for large magnitude earthquakes in subduction zones. This provided the impetus for this research which focusses on developing new liquefaction evaluation models for large magnitude earthquakes. New models for number of equivalent cycles and stress reduction factor are developed by analyzing the representative ground motions and soil strata. These empirical parameters are central to the prediction of liquefaction triggering. Comparing the new models with the existing models revealed that the factor of safety against liquefaction estimated using new models are greater than those obtained using existing models for large magnitude earthquake scenario when the ground acceleration is high. This implies that using the existing models for predicting liquefaction in a site subjected to high values of ground acceleration from a subduction earthquake will lead to "false positives." Developed using a comprehensive dataset and robust regression techniques, the models developed in this research will lead to better predictions of liquefaction due to large subduction events.

<p dir="ltr">The Cascadia subduction zone features many along-strike variations in geophysical signatures that appear independent of properties in the subducting Juan de Fuca plate. Past studies have hypothesized that controls on these variations, namely subcretion, seem linked to overriding plate characteristics but may be influenced by characteristics of the downgoing slab as well. Nowhere is this more apparent than in southern Cascadia, which features the highest seismogenesis, broadest forearc topography, and lowest Bouguer gravity along the Cascadia margin. Additionally, the northward migration of deformation related to the San Andreas fault’s evolution and potential subslab buoyancies introduce further complexities making it difficult to parse contributions of tectonic processes to individual geophysical observations. To better understand contributions from Cascadia subduction and San Andreas evolution on tectonic processes, 60 Magseis Fairview nodal seismometers were deployed in southern Cascadia (Klamath Mountains) between April and May of 2020. We perform ambient noise tomography using Rayleigh and Love waves to constrain radial anisotropy and reveal seismic characteristics in the forearc. We find low VSV (<3.4 km/s) in the lower crust of the forearc consistent with previous studies. This is paired with high (>10%) positive radial anisotropy suggesting these materials are dominated by (sub)horizontal fabrics. We also observe relatively high VSV and VSH and negative radial anisotropy (~ -10%) in the upper crust of the forearc to ~10 km depth. These results suggest that the upper crust, which is dominated by the Klamath terrane, is characterized by (sub-vertical) deformational fabrics, likely related to brittle deformation superimposed on the accretionary history of the Klamath terrane, while the lower crust shows fabrics consistent with what would be expected due to basal accretion of oceanic crust (e.g, sedimentary rocks with or without basaltic slivers). The correlation of positive radial anisotropy with low shear-wave velocities (~3.4 km/s), low Bouguer gravity, high conductivity, and high rates of seismogenic activity (LFEs, tremor distribution, and episodic slow slip events) suggest that this basally accreted material may be infiltrated by fluids derived from the downgoing oceanic lithosphere.</p>

Tsunami hazards were greatly underestimated along the coasts of countries bordering the northeastern Indian Ocean until the occurrence of the 26 December 2004, Mw 9.2 earthquake and its ensuing tsunami. Sourced off the coast of northern Sumatra, on the plate boundary between the Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates, the rupture of the 2004 earthquake propagated ~1300 km northward. The magnitude of this earthquake and the reach of its tsunami exceeded all known precedents, based on instrumental and historic records. The coseismic deformational and post-tsunami depositional features facilitated opportunities to conduct tsunami geology studies along the coasts of countries bordering the Indian Ocean. Several questions are being posed, the answers of which have implications for tsunami hazard assessment. How did this plate boundary behave prior to and after the great earthquake? Was the 2004 earthquake the first of its kind on the Sumatra-Andaman plate boundary? If it had a predecessor, when did it occur and was it a true predecessor in terms of its rupture dimensions and tsunamigenic potential? What types of depositional evidence are preserved and how can we use them to develop the history of past tsunamigenic earthquakes? Researchers are exploring the affected regions and using the imprints left by the 2004 event, to address these questions. There are two components to this study: one, a seismotectonic analysis of the region from the perspective of plate driving forces and their relative roles in the interseismic and post-seismic phases. This study uses global data catalogs like the NEIC PDE (National Earthquake Information Centre Preliminary Determination of Epicenters) and the Global Centroid Moment Tensor (CMT) solutions for earthquake source parameters to understand the along-strike variations in seismicity patterns before and after the 2004 earthquake. The 2004 experience was unprecedented in South Asia. Unaffected by tsunami hazards in the past, tsunami geology is a nascent field for most South Asian researchers. Very little background field data is available on the deformational features of great earthquakes along this plate boundary and the depositional characteristics of extreme coastal surges, such as tsunamis and storms. Where do we begin our search for evidence of past tsunamigenic earthquakes? How best can we use the 2004 tsunami and its deposits as a proxy? What problems are encountered in the interpretations? This thesis addresses these questions in part and presents observations from the Andaman Islands (the ~400 km, northern segment of the Sumatra-Andaman subduction zone) and the southeast coast of India, towards developing a reliable database of tsunami geology for 2004-type events. The premise is that regions affected by the 2004 earthquake are more likely to conserve signatures from older events. Based on the stratigraphic context of the proxy and quality of age estimates, this work presents evidence for past earthquake related deformation and tsunami deposition. In this work we use deformational and depositional features from the Andaman Islands, falling within the 2004 rupture zone and from one location on the Tamil Nadu coast of India (Kaveripattinam). From a perceptive understanding of the features related to tectonic deformation of the Sumatra-Andaman subduction zone, we have selected the Andaman segment that demonstrates explicit evidence for deformation and tsunami deposition through geomorphological and stratigraphic features, which are key to our exploration. A gist of each chapter is given below. The introduction (chapter 1) presents the background, motivation and scope of this work and the organization of this thesis, also summarizing the contents of each chapter. Chapter 2 provides a review of literature on subduction zone earthquakes and updates on tsunami geology, to place this study in the global context. The next two chapters discuss the seismotectonics of the Sumatra-Andaman plate boundary, the important earthquakes and their source processes. In chapter 3 we discuss the Andaman segment (from 10–15° N), characterized by relatively lower level seismicity, but distinctive, as it falls within the northern limit of the 2004 rupture. The deformational and depositional features here are better exposed due to availability of land straddling the hinge line separating the areas of 2004 uplift and subsidence. Here, the pre-2004 earthquakes used to occur along a gently dipping subducting slab, up to a depth of about 40 km. Post-2004, the earthquakes moved up-dip, extending also to the outer-rise and outer-ridge regions, expressing post-earthquake relaxation [Andrade and Rajendran, 2011]. The southern Nicobar segment (5–10° N) differs from the Andaman segment in its style of deformation and seismic productivity. The decreasing obliquity of convergence, the likely influence of a subducting ocean ridge on the subducting plate and the character of the subducting oceanic plate make this segment distinctly different. In chapter 4 we present an analysis of its seismotectonic environment based on the well-constrained focal mechanisms of historic and recent earthquakes. We report that left-lateral strike-slip faulting on near N-S oriented faults control the deformation and the style of faulting is consistent to ~80 km within the subducting slab [Rajendran, K. et al., 2011]. The 11 April 2012 sequence of earthquakes on the subducting oceanic plate, between the Sumatra Trench and the Ninety East Ridge are the more recent among the oceanic intraplate earthquakes that demonstrate the reactivation of N-S oriented fossil fractures. The limited availability of land and the 2004 coseismic deformation dominated by subsidence, followed by prolonged waterlogging makes exploration difficult in the Nicobar segment. Thus, we focus on the Andaman Islands for deformational and depositional evidence, using observations that can be corroborated through multiple proxies and depositional environments that are not prone to other coastal surges, such as cyclones and storms. The criteria for selection of sites, evaluation of deposits and determination of limiting ages are discussed in chapters 5 through 9. In chapter 5 we discuss different types of coastal environments and their response to high-energy sea surges. We also give a brief review of the comparative analyses of storm and tsunami deposits, a highly debated issue and then discuss important characteristics of these two deposits, using examples from the 2004 tsunami and the 2011 Thane cyclone that affected parts of the Tamil Nadu coast. An important component of tsunami geology is the ability to identify and select datable material from tsunami deposits and chose an appropriate method for dating (chapter 6). The types of material used vary from peat layers, peat-rich soil, gastropod shells, wood, charcoal, organic remains such as bones, coral fragments, pottery sherds and buried soil. Techniques such as AMS Carbon-14 and Thermoluminescence are commonly used with appropriate calibrations and corrections. In addition to the dates generated in this study (based on wood and shell dates) we use some previous dates from the entire stretch of the rupture within the Indian Territory and assign a relative grading to these ages, based on the quality criterion evolved in this study. We believe that this is the first attempt to segregate age data obtained from coastal deposits, and assign them a specific quality grading based on their environment of deposition and the type of material dated. Chapter 7 presents results of our investigations in the Andaman Islands, which cover ~30% of the rupture area. A coseismically subsided mangrove from Rangachanga (Port Blair, east coast of South Andaman) led us to a former subsidence during AD 770–1040, which we believe is the most convincing evidence for a previous tectonic event. Data based on inland deposits of coral and organic debris yielded a younger age in the range of AD 1480–1660. Both these dates fall in the age brackets reported from other regions of this plate boundary (mainly Sumatra) as well as distant shores of Sri Lanka, Thailand and mainland India. To understand the nature of distant deposits, we present observations from Kaveripattinam, an ancient port city on the east coast of India, where a high-energy sea surge deposit, found 1 km inland is attributed to a paleotsunami. The inland location of this archeological site at an elevation of 2 m and characteristics of the deposit that help discriminate it from typical storm deposition provide clinching evidence in favor of a 1000-year old regional tsunami (chapter 8). In chapter 9 we discuss the results of our study. We evaluate the nature of deformation/deposition and the calibrated age data in the context of their environments. Ages based on the organic material associated with coral debris (at Hut Bay and Interview Island) and the remains of mangrove roots, 1 m below the present ground level (at Port Blair) are considered as reliable estimates, due to their sheltered inland location and the in situ root horizon used for dating. Age data from Kaveripattinam is also considered reliable, based on its inland location beyond the reach of storm surges, sediment characteristics typical of tsunami deposition and ages based on multiple methods and samples. The age data based on the sites presented in this thesis are more conclusive about the 800 to 1100 AD and 1250 to 1450 AD tsunamis, and the former is represented from regions closer to the 2004 source as well as distant shores reached by its tsunami. Chapter 10 presents our conclusions and the scope for future studies. We present this as the first study of its kind in the northeastern Bay of Bengal, wherein the coseismic vertical coastal deformation features along an interplate subduction boundary and a variety of tsunami deposits are used to categorize depositional environments and ages of paleoearthquakes and tsunamis. To our knowledge, this is the first study of its kind where the effects of a recent tsunami have been used to evaluate paleodeposits based on their respective environments of occurrence. Our results have implications for tsunami geology studies in coastal regions prone to tsunami hazard.

Les éléments volatils libérés de la plaque plongeante lors de la subduction jouent un rôle fondamental durant la formation des magmas d'arc dans le coin mantellique. Depuis quelques années, les développements des techniques d'analyse par sonde ionique ont permis l'analyse de ces éléments, en particulier F et Cl, dans les magmas d'arc, et notamment dans les magmas d'arc primaires grâce aux avancées des études sur les inclusions magmatiques. Une récente étude des inclusions magmatiques du Mont Shasta (E. U.) (Le Voyer et al., 2010) a montré que le fractionnement du F et du Cl apportait des informations sur la genèse des magmas d'arc. Afin de caractériser la source de ces magmas, j'ai étudié les coefficients de partage du fluor et du chlore. Dans cette étude, je présente les premiers coefficients de partage du F et du Cl, entre des liquides de fusions silicatés anhydres et hydratés et des minéraux mantelliques tels que olivine, orthopyroxène, clinopyroxène, plagioclase, grenat ainsi que pargasite et phlogopite. Les valeurs sont issues de 300 mesures dans 24 expériences de fusion, réalisées entre 8 et 25 kbars et, 1180 et 1430˚C. Les faibles concentrations en F et Cl dans les minéraux ont été analysées par la sonde ionique Cameca IMF 1280 de WHOI en utilisant le mode d'ions secondaires négatifs. Les résultats montrent que DOpx/meltF varient de 0.123 à 0.021 et DCpx/meltF de 0.153 à 0.083, tandis que DOpx/meltCl varient de 0.002 à 0.069 et DCpx/meltCl de 0.008 à 0.015. De plus, DOl/meltF de 0.116 à 0.005 et DOl/meltCl de 0.001 à 0.004 ; DGrt/meltF de 0.012 à 0.166 et DGrt/meltCl de 0.003 à 0.087 avec l'augmentation de la teneur en eau et la diminution de la température dans les expériences. Je montre aussi que le F est compatible dans la phlogopite (DPhl/meltF >1.2) alors qu'il est incompatible dans la pargasite (DAmp/meltF de 0.36 à 0.63). A l'inverse, Cl est plus incompatible dans la phlogopite (DPhl/meltCl en moyenne 0.09±0.02), que dans la pargasite (DAmp/meltCl de 0.12 à 0.38). Cette étude démontre que F et Cl sont substitués dans des sites spécifiques de l'oxygène, ce qui les rend plus sensibles que les éléments traces aux variations de chimie des cristaux et de la quantité d'eau, et donc aux conditions de fusion. En utilisant ces nouveaux coefficients de partage, j'ai modélisé la fusion de lithologies potentielles du manteau sub-arc permettant de 1) déterminer la quantité de fluide aqueux impliqué dans la fusion, 2) distinguer la fusion induite par apport de fluides de la fusion d'une source à minéraux hydratés et 3) la fusion d'une lithologie à pargasite de celle à phlogopite, et montre que la source de certains magmas primaires d'arc, par exemple d'Italie, contient de la pargasite et de la phlogopite, tandis d'autres magmas primaires d'arc résultent d'une fusion par apport de fluides. / Volatile elements released from the subducting slab play a fundamental role during the formation of arc magmas in the mantle wedge. Advances of melt inclusion studies enlarged the data on volatile abundance in arc magmas, and it is now possible to characterize some volatile contents in arc primary magmas, in particular F and Cl. A recent study of Mt Shasta melt inclusions (LeVoyer et al., 2010) shows that fractionation of F and Cl potentially contains information about arc magma genesis. In order to trace the source of arc magmas, fluorine and chlorine partitioning was investigated. Here, I present new experimental determinations of Cl and F partition coefficients between dry and hydrous silicate melts and mantle minerals: olivine, orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, plagioclase, garnet and also pargasite and phlogopite. The values were compiled from more than 300 measurements in 24 melting experiments, conducted between 8 and 25 kbars and between 1180 and 1430˚C. The low abundance F, Cl measurements in minerals were done by Cameca IMF 1280 at WHOI using the negative secondary ion mode. The results show that DOpx/meltF ranges from 0.123 to 0.021 and DCpx/meltF ranges from 0.153 to 0.083, while Cl partition coefficient varies from DOpx/meltCl from 0.002 to 0.069 and DCpx/meltCfrom 0.008 to 0.015, as well. Furthermore, DOl/meltF ranges from 0.116 to 0.005 and DOl/meltCl from 0.001 to 0.004; DGrt/meltF ranges from 0.012 to 0.166 and DGrt/meltCl from 0.003 to 0.087 with the increasing water amount and decreasing temperature. I also show that F is compatible in phlogopite DPhl/meltF > 1.2) while DAmp/meltF is incompatible in pargasite DAmp/meltF from 0.36 to 0.63). On the contrary, Cl is more incompatible in phlogopite (DPhl/meltCl > 1.2 on average 0.09 ± 0.02), than in pargasite (DPhl/meltCl from 0.12 to 0.38). This study demonstrates that F and Cl are substituted in specific oxygen site in minerals that lead then to be more sensitive than trace elements to crystal chemistry and water amount variations thus melting conditions. Using those new partition coefficients, I modelled melting of potential sub-arc lithologies with variable quantity aqueous-fluid. This model is able to decipher 1) amount of aqueous-fluid involved in melting, 2) melting induced by fluid or melting of an hydrous mineral-bearing source and 3) melting of either pargasite-bearing lithology or phlogopite-bearing lithology and shows that sources of some primitive melts, for instance from Italy, bear pargasite and phlogopite, while some primitve melts seem to be the results of fluid-induced melts.

Les rides de Barracuda et de Tiburon sont deux reliefs sous-marins situés dans la partie ouest de l'océan Atlantique, là où la lithosphère océanique des plaques Amérique du Nord (NAM) et Amérique du Sud (SAM) est entraînée par subduction sous la plaque Caraïbe, formant l'arc volcanique des Petites Antilles et le prisme d’accrétion de Barbade. Le processus et la période de soulèvement conduisant au relief actuel de ces rides (qui semblent être un marqueur important dans l'histoire géodynamique de la région) sont sujets à débat depuis des décennies.L’interprétation de nouvelles données de sismique réflexion et de bathymétrie multifaisceaux acquises à travers les rides de Barracuda et de Tiburon (campagne Antiplac, 2007 ) a permis de dater les périodes de soulèvements des rides et réaliser des reconstructions paléogéographiques incluant les flux sédimentaires majeurs, depuis le Crétacé jusqu’ à l’Actuel.L’analyse structurale révèle des phases de réactivations tardives d’anciennes zones de fractures dans un contexte transpressif, conduisant aux surrections des rides de Tiburon et de Barracuda.Les processus géologiques possibles impliqués dans la formation des rides de Barracuda et de Tiburon coïncident avec les modèles cinématiques récents décrivant les mouvements relatifs entre les plaques NAM et SAM, le long de la limite de plaque diffuse.Ces résultats permettent de mieux définir la limite de plaque entre NAM et SAM. Elle est nécessairement hétérogène exploitant les zones de faiblesses dans la lithosphère que sont les zones de fracture. Au sein de cette limite de plaque la lithosphère serait donc fragmentée. / The Barracuda Ridge and the Tiburon Rise, two oceanic-basement ridges, lie in the western Atlantic Ocean, where oceanic lithosphere of the North American (NAM) and South American (SAM) plates is subducted beneath the Caribbean plate, creating the Lesser Antilles volcanic arc and the Barbados Ridge accretionary complex. The process and the timing of the uplift leading to the present day morphologies of the Tiburon and Barracuda ridges, that seem to be key markers in the geodynamic history of the region, has remained a matter of debate for decades.From the analysis of new multibeam and seismic reflection profiles acquired in 2007 (Antiplac crusie) DSDP-ODP boreholes available, we provide new information on the timing of the formation of the Barracuda Ridge and Tiburon Rise in their present-day configurations. We propose paleogeographic reconstructions with the main sediments fluxes deposited in the area of the Barracuda and Tiburon ridges from the Late Cretaceous to present. Structural analysis shows reactivation of fracture zones in a transpressive setting leading to the uplifts of the Barracuda and Tiburon Ridges.The location of the Barracuda Ridge and the Tiburon Rise and the timing of the uplift fit well with recent global plate kinematic models describing the movements of NAM relative to SAM along a diffuse plate boundaryThis NAM-SAM plate boundary zone, therefore must most certainly be heterogeneous in nature, exploiting weaknesses in the lithosphere provided by fracture zones where mechanically advantageous, but forming new boundary segments elsewhere, to transfer motion between reactivated segments of the fracture zones.

Les serpentinites sont un composant important de la lithosphère océanique formée niveau de rides lentes à ultra-lentes. Ces roches représentant un vaste réservoir de l'eau, d’éléments mobiles dans les fluides (FME), halogènes et volatils, il a été proposé qu'elles jouent un rôle important pendant l'échange chimique se produisant entre la lithosphère subduite et le coin mantellique dans des zones de subduction. L’objectif de mon doctorat a été de caractériser la nature et la composition des fluides transférés depuis la plaque plongeante jusqu’au coin mantellique en étudiant des ophiolites alpines métamorphiques. Celles-ci se composent en grande partie de serpentinites et ont enregistré différentes conditions métamorphiques modélisant un gradient de subduction. Les études pétrologiques des ophiolites alpines montrent que celles-ci ont enregistré différentes étapes de serpentinisation et de déserpentinisation : (1) serpentinisation océanique et la formation d’assemblages à lizardite et à chrysotile ; (2) déstabilisation prograde de la serpentine océanique en antigorite, à la transition des faciès schistes verts – schistes bleus ; (3)déshydratation de l'antigorite en olivine secondaire dans les conditions du facies d'éclogite. Les analyses chimiques des éléments en trace par LA-ICPMS et constituants volatils et halogènes par SIMS prouvent que, pendant la subduction, les processus de serpentinisation se sont réalisés sans contamination significative par des fluides externes provenant de la déshydratation des sédiments. Dans la partie la superficielle de la lithosphère océanique, la déformation augmente la mobilité des éléments en trace et permet leur redistribution et l'homogénéisation de la composition d'antigorite à l'échelle kilométrique. Au contraire, dans la partie la plus profonde de la lithosphère serpentinisée, la mobilité des éléments en trace est réduite et localisée dans des veines métamorphiques qui constituent des chenaux de circulation des fluides. Les cristallisations successives de l'antigorite et de l'olivine secondaire sont accompagnés d'une diminution des concentrations en FME (B, Li, As, Sb, Ba, Rb, Cs…), halogènes (F, Cl) et volatils (S). La quantification de Fe3+/FeTotal, par chimie humide et spectroscopie XANES, des serpentinites et serpentines montrent que, dans les premières phases de subduction, la transition de lizardite en antigorite est accompagnée d'une réduction forte du fer. Cette réduction est non linéaire avec le degré métamorphique, mais dépend également de la chimie initiale du protolithe péridotitique. À un degré métamorphique plus élevée, le début du processus de déserpentinisation se produit dans un environnement ferreux, menant à une nouvelle oxydation de l'antigorite résiduelle. En conclusion, les serpentinites sont un vecteur de transfert d'éléments depuis la ride jusqu’aux zones de subduction. Pendant la subduction et pendant les changements de phases de la serpentine, les teneurs en FME, en éléments volatils et halogènes de la serpentine diminuent, suggérant que ces éléments sont soustraits dans une phase fluide qui peut potentiellement contaminer le coin mantellique. La nature de ce fluide varie au cours de la subduction. Dans les premiers kilomètres de la subduction, lors de la transition lizardite vers antigorite, les fluides relâchés sont riches en FME, volatils et halogènes. Ils pourraient oxyder le coin mantellique (e.g. SOX, H2O ou CO2) où ils initieraient la cristallisation d’une serpentine riche en ces éléments. A l’inverse, à plus grande profondeur, la déshydratation de l’antigorite libère une quantité moindre de FME, volatils et halogènes. De plus, l’observation d’antigorite riche en Fe3+ associée à l’olivine de déserpentinisation pourrait suggérer la production d’hydrogène lors de la déshydratation de la plaque plongeante. / Serpentinites are an important component of the oceanic lithosphere formed at (ultra-) slow spreading ridges. Because these rocks are a large reservoir of water, fluid mobile elements (FME), halogens and volatiles, it has been proposed that they play a major role during chemical exchange occurring between the subducted lithosphere and the mantle wedge in subduction zones. The aim of my PhD was to characterize the nature and the composition of the fluids transferred from the slab to the mantle wedge by studying metamorphic alpine ophiolites. Those ones are mostly composed of serpentinites and have recorded different metamorphic conditions modeling a subduction gradient. The petrological studies of alpine ophiolites demonstrate that they record different serpentinization and deserpentinization steps: (1) from oceanic serpentinization and the formation of lizardite and chrysotile assemblages, (2) to the prograde destabilization of oceanic serpentine into antigorite, from greenshist to blueschist facies, and (3) finally the dehydration of antigorite into secondary olivine at eclogite facies. The chemical analyses of trace elements by LA-ICPMS and volatiles and halogens by SIMS show that during subduction, the serpentinization processes took place in a relatively closed system without significant external fluid contamination from sediments. In the shallowest part of the oceanic lithosphere, the deformation enhances the mobility of trace elements and permits their redistribution and the homogenization of antigorite composition at kilometric scale. While in the deepest part, the trace element mobility is reduced and localized in metamorphic veins that correspond to channel fluid flows. The successive crystallization of antigorite and secondary olivine are accompanied by a decrease of FME (B, Li, As, Sb, Ba, Cs…), halogens (F, Cl) and volatiles (S) concentrations. The quantification of Fe3+/FeTot by wet chemistry and XANES spectroscopy in serpentinites and serpentine show that, in the first stages of subduction, the transition lizardite to antigorite is accompanied by a strong reduction of the iron. This reduction is nonlinear with metamorphic grade, but also depends on the initial chemistry of the peridotitic protolith. At higher metamorphic grade, the beginning of the deserpentinization process occurs in a ferrous environment, leading to a new oxidation of the remaining antigorite. To conclude, serpentinites are a vector of element transfer from the ridge to subduction zones. During subduction and during the phase changes of serpentine, the FME, volatile and halogen concentrations of serpentine decrease, suggesting that they are removed in a fluid phase that can potentially contaminate the mantle wedge. The composition and the nature of this fluid phase vary during prograde metamorphism. In the first stages of subduction, during the transition lizardite to antigorite, the released fluids are FME, volatiles and halogens rich. They could oxidize the mantle wedge peridotite (e.g. SOX, H2O or CO2) where they allow the crystallization of a FME, volatils and halogens-rich serpentine. At greater depth, the formation of a Fe3+-rich antigorite associated with secondary olivine suggests a H2 production during slab dehydration.

Sous le Chili central et l’ouest de l'Argentine (29°-35°S), la plaque océanique Nazca, en subduction sous la plaque continentale Amérique du Sud, change radicalement de géométrie : inclinée à 30°, puis horizontale, engendrée par la subduction de la chaine de volcans de Juan Fernandez. Le but de mon étude est d'évaluer, la variation de nature et de propriétés physiques de la lithosphère chevauchante entre ces deux régions afin de mieux comprendre (1) sa structure profonde et (2) les liens entre les déformations observées en surface et en profondeur. Pour répondre à cette thématique, j’utilise une approche originale couplant la sismologie, la thermométrie, et la pétrologie. Je montre ainsi des images 3-D de tomographie sismique les plus complètes de cette région par rapport aux études précédentes, qui intègrent (1) de nombreuses données sismiques provenant de plusieurs catalogues, (2) un réseau de stations sismiques plus dense permettant de mieux imager la zone de subduction. J’apporte la preuve que la plaque en subduction se déshydrate dans deux régions distinctes : (1) le coin mantellique, et (2) le long de la ride subduite avant que celle-ci ne replonge plus profondément dans le manteau. La croûte continentale au-dessus du flat slab possède des propriétés sismiques très hétérogènes en relation avec des structures de déformation profondes et des domaines géologiques spécifiques. La croûte chevauchante d’avant-arc, au-dessus du flat slab, est décrite par des propriétés sismiques inhabituelles, liées à la géométrie particulière du slab en profondeur, et/ou liées aux effets du séisme de 1997 de Punitaqui (Mw 7.1). Mes résultats, confirmant les études antérieures, montrent que : - le bloc Cuyania situé plus à l’est, dans la zone d’arrière-arc est plus mafique et contient une croûte inférieure éclogitisée ; quant à, la croûte continentale inférieure sous l’arc Andin, est épaisse et non-éclogitisée, décrivant surement le bloc felsique de Chilenia. / Beneath central Chile and western Argentina, the oceanic Nazca slab drastically changes geometry from horizontal to dipping at an angle of 30°, and correlates with the subduction of the Juan Fernandez seamount ridge. The aim of our study is to assess, using a thermo-petrological-seismological approach, the differences of the overriding lithosphere between these two regions, in order to better understand the deep structure of the continental lithosphere above the flat slab, and the links between the deformations at the surface and at depth. We show the most complete regional 3-D seismic tomography images of this region, whereby, in comparison to previous studies, we use (1) a much larger seismic dataset compiled from several short-term seismic catalogs, (2) a much denser seismic station network which enables us to resolve better the subduction zone. We show significant seismic differences between the flat and normal subduction zones. As expected, the flat slab region is impacted by colder temperatures, and therefore by faster seismic velocities and more intense seismic activity, compared to the normal slab region. We show evidence that the flat slab dehydrates within the mantle wedge, but also along the subducting ridge prior to re-subducting. The forearc crust above the flat slab is described by unusual seismic properties, correlated to the slab geometry at depth, and/or, to the aftershock effects of the 1997 Mw 7.1 Punitaqui earthquake which occurred two years before the recording of our events. The continental crust above the flat slab has very heterogeneous seismic properties which correlate with important deformation structures and geological terranes at the surface. We confirm previous studies that have shown that the thick lower crust of the present day Andean arc is non-eclogitized and maybe representing the felsic Chilenia terrane, whereas to the east, the Cuyania terrane in the backarc is more mafic and contains an eclogitized lower crust.

Dans l’objectif d’évaluer le devenir de sédiments subduits variablement enrichis en soufre dans des conditions P-T (pression – température) correspondant au toit de la plaque sous un arc volcanique, des expériences de fusion et de cristallisation ont été réalisées en conditions hydratées en presse piston-cylindre(3 GPa ; 650 – 1000°C ; ƒO2 ~ NNO) sur des sédiments naturels (pélite et marne), non dopés en éléments en traces et variablement enrichis en soufre (0, 1 et 2 wt% Sin). Lors de la fusion du sédiment pélitique, des liquides trondhjémitiques à granitiques sont produits en équilibre avec un résidu composé de grenat +disthène ± phengite ± quartz + rutile. Lors de la fusion du sédiment marneux, des liquides granodioritiques sont produits en équilibre avec un résidu constitué de grenat ± épidote ± clinopyroxène ± disthène ± quartz +rutile. L’ajout de soufre dans le système pour une ƒO2 ~ NNO conduit à une précipitation de sulfures. La quantité de fer (Fe2+) disponible dans le système diminue fortement (augmentation du Mg#) et impactegrandement les relations de phases : le grenat, l’épidote et la phengite sont déstabilisées au profit des pyroxènes, de la biotite ou encore de l’amphibole. La distribution des éléments en traces dans le liquide silicaté par rapport au sédiment de départ est également très affectée pour les systèmes dopés en soufre(ex : fractionnement des terres rares). Nous proposons, à partir des données obtenues dans des xénolites mantelliques (Grenade, Petites Antilles) et lors de modélisations géochimiques, que la contribution dans lecoin mantellique de 1 à 3 % de liquides trondhjémitiques/granitiques issus de la fusion de sédiments pélitiques modérément enrichis en soufre (≤ 1 wt% Sin) peut expliquer la variabilité de composition des basaltes du sud de l’arc des Petites Antilles (Grenade et Grenadines). / The main issue of this study is to constrain the fate of subducted sediments variably enriched in sulphur for P-T (pressure – temperature) relevant for the slab at sub-arc depth. Using piston-cylinder apparatus, we performed melting and crystallisation experiments (3 GPa; 650 – 1000°C; ƒO2 ~ NNO) on natural, trace elementundoped and volatile-rich sediments (pelite and marlstone). Experiments were conducted with variable water (5 to 10 wt% H2Oin) and sulphur (0, 1 and 2 wt% Sin) contents. Silicate melts produced by the fluid-present melting of pelite range from trondhjemitic to granitic compositions, are broadly peraluminous and coexist with garnet + kyanite ± phengite ± quartz + rutile. Those produced by the fluid-present melting of marlstone are sodic (granodioritic composition), metaluminous to slightly peraluminous and coexist with garnet ± epidote ± clinopyroxene ± kyanite ± quartz + rutile. Sulphur addition at ƒO2 ~ NNO leads to sulphide precipitation. Thus, iron (Fe2+) contents decrease (Mg# increase) in the system and this strongly impacts phase relationships: garnet, epidote and phengite are consumed in favour of pyroxens, biotite and amphibole. Trace-element distribution between silicate melt and starting bulk for S-doped systems is largely impacted (e.g. rare earth elements fractionation). On the basis of data obtained in mantle xenoliths(Grenada, Lesser Antilles) and from geochemical modelisations, we are suggesting that a contribution in the mantle wedge of 1 to 3 % of trondhjemitic/granitic melts derived from pelitic sediments (≤ 1 wt% Sin) mayaccount for the composition of basalts in the southern part of Lesser Antilles (Grenada and Grenadines).

Le bassin Ionien, en Méditerranée centrale, abrite une zone de subduction à vergence Nord-Ouest où la plaque Afrique plonge sous les blocs Calabro-Péloritain au Nord-Est de la Sicile. Cette subduction résulte de la lente convergence entre les plaques tectoniques Afrique et Eurasiatique. Bien que de nombreuses campagnes d’exploration scientifique ont été menées dans cette zone particulière, plusieurs questions géodynamiques restent débattues. Tout d’abord la croûte pavant le bassin Ionien pourrait être soit de nature continentale amincie et représenter une extension de la plaque Afrique, soit océanique (Néo-Téthys) faisant de ce bassin l’un des plus anciens domaines océaniques au monde. L’escarpement de Malte représente un vestige de l’ouverture du bassin, mais les mécanismes de rifting et notamment la géométrie d’ouverture du bassin restent débattus. Cette subduction est en retrait vers le Sud-Est depuis les derniers 35 Ma, mais est aujourd’hui confinée à l’étroit bassin Ionien. Afin d’accommoder ce retrait de la plaque plongeante dans le bassin, une grande faille de déchirure lithosphérique de bord de subduction (STEP fault en anglais pour « subduction Transform Edge Propagator ») doit se propager le long de la marge Est-Sicilienne. Cependant, sa position en surface reste difficile à déterminer dans l’épais prisme d’accrétion recouvrant le bassin. Ces questions ont été explorées par modélisation des données de sismique grand angle de la campagne DIONYSUS (Octobre 2014, R/V Meteor) le long de deux profils perpendiculaires à la marge Est-Sicilienne. Des modélisations gravimétriques en 3D ont aussi été réalisées dans le but de localiser la plaque plongeante en profondeur sous les blocs Calabro-Péloritains. La sismicité des trois structures majeures du bassin : l’escarpement de Malte, l’AFS (Alfeo Fault System), et l’IFS (Ionian Fault System) a permis d’étudier leurs activités à l’actuel. Les résultats obtenus permettent d’observer une croûte océanique au fond du bassin. La structure profonde de l’escarpement de Malte est observée comme une zone d’amincissement crustal abrupt, ce qui est caractéristique des marges transformantes. Un profond bassin sédimentaire asymétrique (11 km) est observé au Sud du détroit de Messine. Il s’est probablement ouvert récemment entre les blocs continentaux Péloritain et Calabre. Dans le lobe Ouest du prisme d’accrétion Calabrais, le modèle de vitesse permet d’observer l’indentation du prisme clastique interne dans le prisme évaporitique externe. Des modélisations analogiques utilisant sable et silicone ont permis de démontrer la récente activité de ce lobe. L’interprétation des modèles de vitesse permet de localiser la faille STEP le long de l’AFS sur les deux profils. / In the Ionian Sea (central Mediterranean) the slow convergence between Africa and Eurasia results in the formation of a narrow subduction zone. The nature of the crust of the subducting plate remains debated and could represent the last remnants of the Neo-Tethys ocean. The origin of the Ionian basin is also under discussion, especially concerning the rifting mechanisms as the Malta Escarpment could represent a remnant of this opening. This subduction retreats toward the south-east (motion occurring since the last 35 Ma) but is confined to the narrow Ionian basin. A major lateral slab tear fault is required to accommodate the slab rollback.This fault is thought to propagate along the eastern Sicily margin but its precise location remains controversial.This PhD project focussed on the deep sedimentary and crustal structures of the eastern Sicily margin and the Malta Escarpment (ME). Two two-dimensional P wave velocity models were modelled by forward Modelling of wide-angle seismic data, acquired onboard the R/V Meteor during the DIONYSUS cruise in 2014.A 3D gravity model of the region was also performed to constrain the depth of the subducting slab bellow the Calabro-Peloritan backstops. The seismicity of the three structures identified in the velocity models (ME, Alfeo fault System, Ionian Fault System) permits to study their recent activity. The results image an oceanic crust within the Ionian basin as well as the deep structure of the Malta Escarpment, which presents characteristics of a transform margin. A deep and asymmetrical sedimentary basin is imaged south of the Messina strait and seems to have opened between the Calabrian and Peloritan continental terranes. In the western lobe of the Calabrian accretionary prism, the southern velocity model allows to observe the indentation of the internal clastic wedge into the external evaporitic wedge, thus showing the recent activity of this lobe. The interpretation of the velocity models suggests that the major STEP fault is located east of the Malta Escarpment, along the Alfeo Fault System.