在能源被最終消費之前，能源的開採、運輸或轉換過程都需另以能源為要素投入來源。現今再生能源生產技術尚處萌芽階段，許多技術之生產未能通過「能源分析」而尚處於研究發展階段，此時政府若以促進再生能源總產量為政策目標，並獎勵能源生產，可能導致不具生產效率的再生能源技術被使用，進而造成能源耗竭與環境問題的擴大。 本研究提出現今再生能源補貼基礎的錯誤，會導致能源浪費的情況發生，進而造成政策目標與執行結果不一致。針對這樣的問題，本研究以簡單的模型解釋問題發生的原因，更針對問題癥結提出有效的解決方法，並得到不錯的結果。避免能源浪費具體的解決方針為，改變舊有補貼「能源粗產出」的形式，政策目標應朝社會「能源淨產出」最適的方向發展，而這也是主要的研究重點所在。最後研究仍認為，讓所有能源價格反映其生產的社會成本，才是導正能源市場扭曲最佳的方法。 / The extraction, processing, transformation, and delivering of energy all need energy itself as an input. However, the technology for producing renewable energy seldom passes the energy analysis and is still in its infancy. If the government regards promoting the total output of renewable energy as a policy goal at this moment, it may induce inefficient technology to be used and may accelerate the exhaustion of natural resources and the degradation of environment. This study found that subsidy for encouraging renewable energy production based on gross output fails to solve the problem of market failure. It will lead to a waste of energy, and then cause the policy goal to be inconsistent with social optimality. This study explicitly solved the problem with a net output model. The contribution of this study is to prove that policy goal for renewable energy production should base itself on net output instead of on gross output. The best policy for solving market failure is to let energy price reflect its social cost.

為了「減輕家庭負擔，使3歲以下兒童獲得適切的健康照顧，促進其身心正常發展」，內政部兒童局自2002年起實施「三歲以下兒童醫療補助計畫」，並且已有研究證實此政策確實有效以免除部分負擔的方式降低兒童就醫門檻，增加兒童的醫療利用。然而，在我國面臨醫療資源分布不均與貧富差距逐漸擴大的同時，政策效果的分配是否公平有待商榷。由於兒童一旦滿三歲即不再受政策補助，本研究使用2004年至2009年健保資料庫中就醫年紀滿三歲前後二十週的兒童為樣本，依其居住地區與在固定居住地區下依其家庭所得條件分組，觀察各組兒童滿三歲前後醫療利用的變化並比較組間差別，使用RDD (regression discontinuity design) 分析政策在兒童滿三歲時造成的斷點是否顯著。 實證結果顯示，在依居住地區分組下，兒童滿三歲不受補助後，西醫門診以醫療資源不足區醫療利用的下降最為顯著；西醫急診以醫療資源過剩區醫療利用下降最為顯著，而不論西醫門診或西醫急診，皆以醫療資源不足區的價格彈性最大，其中西醫門診與急診間的替代關係對估計結果有一定的影響。在固定居住地區下依家庭所得條件分組下，各居住地區均以低所得組受政策效果較顯著，醫療資源不足區的低所得組以西醫門診政策效果最為顯著；過剩區的低所得組則以西醫急診政策效果最為顯著。兩種分組依據下的結果均顯示，醫療資源分布不均造成的低落醫療可近性無法以兒童醫療補助計畫消弭。

published_or_final_version / Education / Master / Master of Education

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<p>The research paper seeks to investigate the possible ways in which African countries can maximise their benefit from the existing special and differential treatment clauses for trade in agriculture, and, then, make recommendations as to what should be the potential bargaining position of African countries with regard to future trade negotiations on agricultural trade.</p>

The conversion of native forest to agricultural land has been an on-going issue threatening the health of New Zealand’s freshwater systems. However, despite the fact that this has been occurring since early European settlement, our understanding of the mechanistic relationships between riparian vegetation and stream condition are poorly developed. This research investigated: (i) how forests affect downstream benthic macroinvertebrate communities in pasture and the environmental factors driving community change; (ii) how upstream forest size impacted the rate of change in downstream environmental drivers and associated macroinvertebrate community structure; and (iii) whether the addition of coarse particulate organic matter (a single potential driver of forest community structure) can reset community structure to that of a forested state. Physico-chemical conditions, basal energy resources, and macroinvertebrates were surveyed in several New Zealand headwater streams. At Mount Egmont National Park, 10-12 sites were surveyed across a longitudinal forest-pasture gradient in each of five streams flowing from continuous forest to dairy farmland. My results showed that forests can have marked effects downstream. From the forest edge, water temperatures increased consistently, with a rise of approximately 0.2ºC per 100 m of downstream distance. By contrast, coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM) decreased rapidly downstream of the forest, however, low levels of “forest-derived” CPOM were still present 300m downstream from the forest edge. These environmental changes drove significant shifts in macroinvertebrate community structure. Moreover, pasture communities were markedly different from those in forest, despite being only 100 m from the forest edge. In particular, total macroinvertebrate and EPT richness and densities decreased, and communities shifted from evenly distributed allochthonous-based communities to autochthonous-based communities, highly dominated by molluscs (e.g., Potamopyrgus spp.) Subsequent surveys of 6-8 sites across a longitudinal forest-pasture gradient in each of eleven streams flowing from forest fragments of different sizes into grazed pastures throughout the Canterbury region, indicated that stream temperature increased more rapidly downstream of small- and medium-sized fragments, than larger fragments. A Berger-Parker dominance index also indicated that macroinvertebrates responded principally to water temperature, with communities being more highly dominated by temperature-tolerant molluscs in streams flowing from small-sized forest fragments. Several headwater streams in Canterbury were also highly retentive, with marked CPOM rarely exported beyond 50 m downstream of the forest. Experimental additions of leaf litter to the pasture reaches of the same streams dramatically increased amounts of stored benthic CPOM. Although non-significant, trends indicated that EPT and shredder densities increased at litter addition sites, providing promise that CPOM can function as a mechanism directly enhancing healthy stream communities. My findings support the contention that when the replanting of entire stream reaches is infeasible, the use of riparian management strategies which focus on the planting of intermittent patches along stream banks can potentially improve stream habitat and community health downstream.

This thesis consists of four papers summarized as follows. Do Payroll Tax Cuts Raise Youth Employment? We study whether payroll tax reductions are an effective means to raise youth employment. In 2007, the Swedish employer-paid payroll tax was cut on a large scale for young workers, substantially reducing labor costs for this group. Using the variation in payroll taxes across cohorts, we estimate a significant, but small, impact both on employment and on wages. Effects of Taxes on Youth Self-Employment and Income. I examine the link between taxes and youth self-employment. I make use of a Swedish reform that made the payroll tax and the self-employment tax vary by age. The results suggest that youth self-employment is insensitive to tax reductions, both in the short run and in the somewhat longer run. For those defined as self-employed, I find positive effects on income from self-employment, and negative effects on income from wage employment. Can Indifference Make the World Greener? We conducted a natural field experiment at a large university in Sweden to evaluate the effects of two resource conservation programs. The first intervention consisted of a campaign that actively tried to convince people to cut back on printing in general, and to use double-sided printing whenever possible. The second intervention exploited people's tendency to stick with pre-set alternatives. At random points in time we changed the printers’ default settings, from single-sided to double-sided printing. Whereas the moral appeal had no impact, the default change cut paper use by 15 percent. The Origins of Behavioral Contagion: Evidence from a Field Experiment on Facebook. We explore the micro-level foundations of behavioral contagion by running a natural field experiment on the networking site Facebook. Members of Facebook express positive support to content on the website by clicking a Like button. We show that users are more prone to support content if someone else has done so before.

自1994年以來，人民幣對美元匯率始終維持在8.28：1美元。近年來，在中國對經常帳外匯收入之法定結匯要求下，其強勁出口貿易迫使中國不斷提高貨幣供給，收購出口廠商源源不斷之美元結匯需求，以維持固定匯率，進而造成人民幣匯率被低估及累積驚人外匯存底之結果。 惟此一運作方式引來美國產業團體及國會議員高分貝抗議，主張人民幣固定且低估匯率，提高中國產品之出口競爭力，使中國出口商享有不公平之貿易競爭優勢，損害美國製造業及勞工之權益，符合WTO所禁止之禁止性補貼規範，並違反IMF避免操控匯率之義務，故促美國貿易代表署調查並向WTO提出控訴。惟美國產業團體及國會議員之訴求已遭美國貿易代表署拒絕。 本文先以美國產業團體之訴求為出發點，並以WTO及IMF兩大組織之合作關係連貫後續討論：人民幣固定且低估匯率之措施是否符合WTO禁止性補貼之規範？是否違反IMF避免操控匯率之義務？前者以補貼三項要件「財務補助」、「受有利益」及「特定性」加以檢驗，後者則以「操控匯率」之定義及目前學者、IMF及美國財政部之判斷定之。最後做出構成禁止性補貼之可能性高、操控匯率之義務違反可能性高兩個結論。 中國已明確表示其匯率改革有其自訂時間表，需與國內金融改革、相關配套措施之建立及經濟發展情況相配合，不會受制於外國壓力而逕予改革。為解決此一問題，本文再就美國單邊貿易報復措施法案、中美雙邊財政外交及各種多邊場域協商等方式中，提出較適解決此貿易爭端之建議。 / Since 1994, China has fixed the exchange rate of yuan around 8.28 yuan per U.S. dollar. China requires its citizens and firms to exchange their dollars for yuan, so the strong exports and trade surplus enforce the Chinese government to add money supply to acquire the increasing dollars. As a result, China can peg and undervalue the exchange rate of yuan to dollar and accumulate astonishing foreign reserves. This situation arise the objection of American manufacturing alliance and Congressmen. They assert the pegged and undervalued yuan increase the competitiveness of China’s products, allow the China’s export companies to have unfair trade advantages, damage the benefits of American manufactures and workers. Besides, this regime constitutes the prohibited subsidy of WTO and violates the IMF obligation of avoidance of currency manipulation. They urged the USTR to investigate and launch a dispute settlement in WTO but had been refused. This article starts from the appeal of American alliance and use the cooperation between WTO and IMF to link the following discussion: is the regime of fixed and undervalued yuan consistent with the prohibited subsidy regulations in WTO and is the regime against the IMF obligation of avoidance of currency manipulation? The former one is examined by three elements: ‘‘financial contribution’’. ‘‘benefits’’ and ‘‘specific’’ while the latter one is tested by the definition of currency manipulation and the exchange rate reports of IMF and U.S. Treasury. The answers are positive both. China has asserted that she has her own time table and will not surrender to the pressure of foreign countries. This article then tries to use unilateral trade retaliatory measures, bilateral financial diplomacy and other multilateral consultations to find the proper resolutions.

La tesis tiene dos partes. La primera parte desarrolla un modelo para evaluar los efectos del comercio internacional al crecimiento de economías en transito. Identifica desventaja del argumento "Infant Industry" que ha sido inadvertido previamente: proteccionismo puede reducir el crecimiento al largo plazo sí reduce la demanda local de bienes con altas potenciales de crecimiento en la productividad. Además, analiza los efectos de competencia internacional entre las economías en transito. Puede mostrar que ellos están empujados arriba la escala de cualidad de productos disfrutando crecimiento.La segunda parte analiza subsidios en acuerdos comerciales. El óptimo de los sostenibles acuerdos incluye subsidios de sectores ineficientes. Cuando al ventaja comparativa crece, industrias diminuyendo están protegidos. Presupuestos claves para esos resultados son esencialidad de los bienes importados y flexibilidad de la estructura industrial. Es mostrado que bajo una estructura industrial más rígida, subsidios los sectores de competencia de importes desestabiliza loa acuerdos comerciales. / The thesis has two parts. The first develops a model to assess the effects of trade integration on the income growth in developing countries. The model identifies a drawback of the infant industry argument, previously unnoticed: protectionism can decrease long-run growth by reducing local demand for goods with high potentials of productivity growth. Second, it addresses the effects of competition among developing countries. It is shown that developing economies can be pushed up the production ladder and enjoy increased long-run growth.The second part analyzes subsidies in trade agreements. Optimal self-enforcing trade agreement includes subsidies to inefficient sectors. When comparative advantage deepens, declining industries are optimally subsidized. Key assumptions driving these results are essentiality of imported goods and a high flexibility of the countries' industrial structure. It is finally shown that that under rigid industrial structure subsidizing import competing sectors actually destabilizes trade agreements.

Thesis (MComm (Logistics))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The current subsidy system, designed to make South Africa’s public transport more affordable, has instead contributed to a worsening of the existent neglected state of affairs. Although subsidy policies are in place, misdirected allocation renders them mostly ineffective. The implementation of the new integrated public transport systems for metropolitan areas affords an opportunity to adopt a broad spectrum approach and initiate a redesigned and improved subsidy system. The purpose of this study is to assess the South African urban public transport industry with the aim of finding by means of a system-based process a subsidy approach that will overcome the remaining inequalities of the past. This study will consequently evaluate different subsidy theories and determine which one(s) will be best suited to the demands of a specific period. The final objective is to design a product which offers government a systembased process that will help it determine, every few years, whether the subsidy regime being applied at that juncture is still relevant to the requirements of the market and/or what (new) approach is necessary to achieve social and economic wellbeing. Commuter transport in South Africa is currently in a transition phase where new public transport infrastructure is being implemented in the metropolitan cities. The current economic recession (making people’s demand more elastic to prices) present a good time to conduct the system-based process necessary for transition of the public transport system and determine an optimal subsidy approach for the new system. The first step in the system-based process was to determine the scope of work and the overall objectives that should be reached. The main public transport shortcomings are the lack of accessibility to affordable transport for the poor and increasing private transport ownership by the rich, which increases congestion and forms the second step of the systembased process. The third step stated the action plan of strategies on how the objectives could be reached. These three steps also form the basic measurement criteria against which the different subsidy approaches needed to be tested. The fourth step in the system-based process to a better subsidy approach was to evaluate different theoretical subsidy approaches. The review of different subsidy approaches has indicated that some approaches work better than others, but an optimal subsidy system is almost never found.