This literary study examines the formulation of masculinity in Syrian novels authored by women. The thesis covers the period between 1959 and 2000, corresponding to both the development of the female-authored novel in Syria and the creation of the modern Syrian state. This research engages with studies of masculinity in general and literary masculinity studies in particular. Drawing on the seminal work of Raewyn Connell as well as engaging with studies on masculinity and feminine narratology in Swedish, English and Arabic, the thesis analyses the formulation of literary masculinity through the fictional societies’ ideal masculinity on the one hand, and the female characters’ views and reactions to masculinity on the other. From a general survey of the field, 34 novels undertaking the formulation of gendered relations were identified and chosen for this study. From this selection, five themes emerged, forming the foundation of this thesis’ main chapters. The five themes explore, in turn, how stereotypes are utilised to critique gender roles, ways in which male and female characters collaborate to formulate gender norms, how female characters capitalise on patriarchy in order to enhance their lives, male characters as symbols for social and political change and finally, the difficulties included in the performance of masculinity. Each theme is exemplified through one novel, which is analysed in detail. Throughout the five chapters, the main novel chosen for analysis is put into conversation with other novels with similar themes but from different decades. This allows for an examination of changing ideals of masculinity in addition to the theme itself. The first theme, how stereotypes are utilised to critique gender roles, is studied through a close reading of al-Ẓahr al-‘ārī (The Naked back) by Hanrīyit ‘Abbūdī. The analysis illustrates how the expected normative behaviour of men and women is utilised in order to comment on the formulation of gender roles. The chapter further demonstrates ways in which what is seen as gender specific behaviour can be appropriated by the opposite gender. This is further developed through the examination of female writers taking over the male voice through a first person male narrator. The second theme, ways in which male and female characters collaborate to formulate gender norms, is discussed through a close reading of the novel Khaṭawāt fī al-ḍabāb (Steps in the fog) by Malāḥa al-Khānī. This chapter illustrates the similar expectations that both male and female characters have on their sons and fellow male characters. This includes taking on the role of provider and protector, even in the cases where the female characters are able to look after themselves. The third theme, how female characters capitalise on patriarchy in order to enhance their lives, is elaborated through a close reading of Ayyām ma‘ahu (Days with him) by Kūlīt Khūrī. This theme demonstrates how the female character constructs herself and her world around the idea of a perfect male, whom she thinks will save her. The analysis examines what is seen as ideal traits in a man. It further discusses the change of the female character and how her initial utilisation of patriarchal structure transforms into a critique of the same structure. The fourth theme, male characters as symbols for social and political change, is seen through a close reading of Dimashq yā basmat al-ḥuzn (Damascus, o smile of sadness) by Ulfat al-Idlibī. The chapter connects between changing social ideals and ideal masculinity. Through Bayrūt 75 (Beirut 75) by Ghāda al-Sammān, the fifth theme, the difficulties included in the performance of masculinity, is studied. The problematic masculinity presented is then put in contrast with what appears to be a suggestion that a performance of femininity could be an alternative to unsuccessful masculinity. Whereas the novels differ in their presentation of masculinity and the utilisation of ideal masculinity, they agree on a set of core traits summarised in a hegemonic ideal of masculinity as an ability to provide and protect. The ways in which this should be performed is however closely connected to the female characters’ ideas of emancipation and women’s rights. The female writers’ formulation of masculinity can hence be said to mirror the development of the female characters and their awareness of women’s rights. The thesis hopes that its original contribution to knowledge is the identification and examination of constructed masculinities in Syrian female-authored fiction. Moreover, this thesis studies a body of Syrian fiction previously largely unstudied in Western academia, and in a framework of Swedish, English and Arabic secondary sources.

L'étude des poteries mises au jour dans un secteur de production (secteur B) associé aux activités économiques de l'un principaux temples du site de Tell Chuera (Syrie du Nord) permet d'appréhender les modes de production, de diffusion et d'utilisation des céramiques de ce centre urbain, vers 2500 av. J.-C. Après une présentation des cadres géographique, historique et historiographique de cette étude, une synthèse des données disponibles rappelle les caractéristiques techniques et morphologiques propres aux assemblages de Jezira occidentale et des régions voisines pendant la période EJZ 3, de façon à confronter la composition de ces assemblages aux données existantes sur la production, la diffusion et la fonction des poteries dans ces diverses régions. L'analyse technologique, archéométrique et morphologique du corpus montre la caractère spécialisé des productions pendant cette période. Toutefois, les potiers de Tell Chuera ne maîtrisaient que partiellement l'utilisation du tour. Outre les choix effectués en raison des contraintes techniques liées au façonnage de certaines formes, l'analyse met en évidence le caractère techno- et morpho-fonctionnel de certaines poteries, en particulier celles destinées au stockage et à la cuisson. La morphométrie des récipients ne permet cependant qu'une approche fonctionnelle limitée et souligne la nature multifonctionnelle des vases. À l'exception de rares espaces dans lesquels la présence d'installations et de mobilier permet de restituer les activités auxquelles ils étaient dédiés, le contenu des vases retrouvés in situ reste inconnu. Finalement, l'étude comparative permet de situer le corpus dans le contexte régional et interrégional de la fin de la période EJZ 3a/ EME 3. Outre l'existence de réseaux de distribution régionaux dans le wadi Hamar, peut-être jusqu'à la vallée du Balikh, les parallèles témoignent d'échanges à l'échelle interrégionale et attestent en particulier l'importation de denrées depuis le bassin de Karababa. / The study of the pottery coming from a production area (Area B) associated with economic activities of one of the main temples of Tell Chuera (Northern Syria) provides insight into the production, the distribution and the use of ceramics at this urban center, in 2500 BC. After providing an overview of the geographical, historical and historiographical framework, this study presents a synthesis focusing on the specific features of the EJZ 3 assemblages in the Western Jezira and in the neighboring regions. This aims to collect available data on the production, the distribution and the function of pottery in these different regions. The technological, archaeometric and morphological analysis of the pottery from Area B clearly shows the specialization of productions at this time. However, the potters of Tell Chuera only partially mastered the use of the wheel. Inaddition to the choices made due to shaping technical constraints of some forms, this analysis also highlight the techno- and morpho-functional characteristics of certain pottery, particularly those used for storage and cooking. The morphometry of the containers, however, allows a quite limited functional approach and emphasizes their multifunctional nature. Except for a few areas, where installations and small finds provide information on the activities carried out there, the content of the vases found in situ remains unknown. Nevertheless, the comparative study of the pottery highlights interregional exchanges and the importation of commodities at Tell Chuera from the Karababa basin.

French rule over Syria and Lebanon was premised on a vision of a special French protectorate established by centuries of cultural activity; archaeological, educational and charitable. This vision translated into a meaning of the mandate as colonial protectorate, integrated into the French Empire. Initial French methods of organising and supervising cultural activity sought to embrace this vision and to implement it in the exploitation of antiquities, the management and promotion of cultural heritage, the organisation of education and control of the public opinion among literate classes. However, in-depth examination of the first five years of the League of Nations-assigned mandate reveals that French expectations of a protectorate were quickly dashed by consistent and widespread contestation of their mandatary methods within cultural institutions, not simply among Arabists but so too among minority groups initially expected to be loyal clients. The violence of imposing the mandate de facto, starting with a landing of French troops in the Lebanese and Syrian Mediterranean coast in 1919 and followed by extension to Syria “proper” in 1920 was followed by consistent violent revolt and rejection of the very idea of a mandate over local peoples. Examining the cultural institutions’ role reveals less violent yet similarly consistent contestation of French meanings ascribed to the mandate by challenging their methods of executing it. Tracing the mandate administrators’ and surveillance and diplomatic apparatus’ point of view, this analysis shows the significant pressure put on French expectations through contestation of such policies as the exportation of antiquities, the expansion of French instruction over Arabic learning, the censorship of the press. This did not quite unite the infamously tapestry-like stakeholders within and without Syria on a nationalist or even anti-imperialist framework. Yet there was a unity in contesting mandatary methods precieved to be transforming the meaning of a League of Nations mandate. The political and de jure discourses emerging after the tragedy of World War I fostered expectations of European tutelages that prepared local peoples for autonomy and independence. Yet, even among the most Francophile of stakeholders, the unfolding of the first years of mandate rule brought forth de facto, entirely different events and methods. In conjunction with the ongoing violent refusal to accept even the premise of a French mandate, this contestation, partly occurring through cultural institutions, contributed to a fundamental reduction of French expectations in the formative five years. An in-depth horizontal and synchronic analysis of the shifts in discourses, attitudes and activities unfolding in French and locally-organised cultural institutions such as schools, museums and newspapers thus signals the need for mandate studies to give greater consideration to shifts in international and local meanings, methods and capacities rather than treating it as a single unit of analysis.

The thesis investigates the causes and nature of return in the context of the Iraqis displaced to Syria and Jordan after the 2003 US-led war in Iraq. It combines critical International Relations theories with transnational approaches in Migration Studies to investigate: (1) how regional and international geopolitics have shaped asylum and migration regimes in the Middle East; (2) how Iraqi forced migrants have interacted with such regimes in order to reach safety, sustainable livelihoods and personal development opportunities and; (3) the decision-making processes and transnational migration practices of Iraqi individuals and families. It finds that Iraqis' returns result from the uneasy interaction between international and national asylum and migration regimes and the lack of agreement on a common legal framework for durable solutions to the Iraqi displacement. The presence and mobility of the Iraqis in Syria and Jordan are regulated within national immigration systems. The immigration and residency policies of the home and host governments confirm the historical importance of voluntary and involuntary population movements as a nation-building and governance tool in the Middle East. Regional governments and international agencies manage the Iraqi displaced and steer their return through the provision, or the lack thereof, of assistance and information. The Iraqis respond to the limited institutional assistance and information by developing independent coping strategies and informal information and communication systems based on the use of information and communication technologies and on their transnational mobility and social networks. Transnational mobility and livelihoods therefore constitute a precondition for Iraqis' sustainable return and reintegration in home societies undergoing political and socio-economic transition. In this context, return is a complex process that takes time and entails various degrees and modalities of transnational mobility, social networks and livelihoods connecting host and home societies.

The 1648 Peace of Westphalia created an understanding of state sovereignty free from external interference that remained largely unaltered until the last century. The horrors of the Holocaust and the significant humanitarian crises of the 20th century have presented the international community with a new type of threat to international peace and security and have sparked an ongoing conversation about the limitations of traditional sovereignty. Russia has positioned itself as a firm supporter of a strict adherence to the Westphalian concept of sovereignty, but my thesis argues that Russians do not value this interpretation as much as they claim to, and that in fact Moscow recognizes that this definition is a thing of the past. I examine Russian actions surrounding the 2011 UN-sanctioned intervention in Libya and the ongoing conflict in Syria, particularly focusing on the major differences between Russian decision-making in the two cases. I analyze transcripts of Security Council meetings in order to demonstrate that there is far more to Russian actions in Syria than Moscow’s public position suggests, and I subsequently offer a number of alternative explanations for Russian decision-making surrounding Syria. These alternative explanations demonstrate that even the Russians, who have portrayed themselves as the great defenders of traditional state sovereignty, recognize the modern limitations to strict Westphalian sovereignty and understand that this traditional definition is a thing of the past. This conclusion is significant because in demonstrating that traditional sovereignty’s greatest champion acknowledges the modern shift in the concept, I prove that the departure from strict Westphalian sovereignty is not merely a theory, but a reality.

Chapter I of this study of the Arabian Ba'th Socialist Party discusses the evolution of Arab nationalism and concludes that Ba'th was a natural outcome of this evolution; two intellectuals supporting Arab nationalism were Party co-founders Michael Aflaq and Salah Bitar, Part One of Chapter II summarizes their lives to facilitate understanding of their thought and its impact on Ba'th; Part Two examines the Party's first convention (source of the Ba'th constitution), the reasons for it, and the necessity of establishing Ba'th; and Part Three outlines Ba'th ideology and organization. Chapter III analyzes Ba'th's promotion of Syrian-Egyptian union and that union's resultant adverse effect upon Party cohesiveness, The Conclusion discusses the groups into which Ba'th split after 1961 and their new interpretations of Ba'th ideology.

In 2018, the Syrian Civil War will enter into its ninth year of conflict. From an international relations perspective there are few, if any, studies on state actors in regional sub-state systems. What can an intrastate conflict teach us about future dynamics of the regional interstate hierarchy? It is worthwhile to examine The Syrian Civil War for three reasons. First, Syria lies in the heart of the Middle East lending proximity to regional actors. Second, the breakdown of order in Syria represents a microcosm of the global anarchic environment. Third, Syrian Civil War is an intrastate war that encapsulates both state and non-state actors. This paper intends to provide a clear regional hierarchical analysis with future possibilities and perspectives. For the last century realism then neorealism dominated the field of international relations, yet they are unfit theories for analyzing the Middle East's hierarchy. To address anomalies realists and neorealists incorporated preference and satisfaction, which undermined the core tenets of their theories. Power Transition Theory (PTT) incorporates satisfaction while maintaining structural organization. The addition of power and satisfaction give PTT the necessary tools to assess regional hierarchies and estimate the likelihood of conflict. This PTT theoretical framework will be used to assess the global hierarchy, the status quo set by the United States, and Syria's relation to the status quo. A synopsis of the Syrian Civil War will be provided to contextualize the actors and dyadic comparisons between actors before and after the Iranian-Russian-Syrian victory in Aleppo. The dyadic comparison indicates power and satisfaction among interested parties and if they change during the course of the conflict. Conclusions indicate that the actors and the environment in the Syrian theater are suitable for Power Transition Theory and the data acquired by researching the Syrian Civil War affirms Yeşilada and Tanrikulu's assessment that Russia tops the Middle East's hierarchy with Turkey and Iran following at near parity. The findings reveal the veracity of Lemke's claim that PTT can be utilized for intrastate conflict. The findings substantiate my claim that intrastate conflict can inform us of a region's hierarchy.

The aim of this study is to analyse the contents in texts about the intra-Syrian peace negotiations, as well as identify latent political meanings, through examining how the sides of the war are portrayed in al-Jazeera´s coverage. Dr Zainab Abdul-Nabi suggests in her analysis of al-Jazeera´s coverage of another event in the Syrian war, namely the chemical attack in Ghouta, that al-Jazeera has a catalysing role in the Arab Spring when covering the Syrian war in particular. This study continues along those lines that Abdul-Nabi suggests by analysing the coverage of another event in the Syrian war – the UN-led intra-Syrian peace negotiations. Purposefully, this study should increase the awareness of how political meanings could be hidden in texts. The theory of agenda setting, a theory by Walter Lippman which was further developed by McCombs and Shaw, is used in this study: media set the agenda by inserting certain portraits of how things are and what the society should be concerned about. Content analysis is the method used to perform this study, following Halperin and Heath´s model. By interpreting articles from an influential media source – al-Jazeera – the analysis shows that the examined texts portray the opposition as protagonists against a brutal government, plausibly making the media source a part of the war since the texts attempt to set the agenda that a certain side is the protagonists and another is the antagonists. Underplaying the potential capacities of the peace negotiations and not compromising with the other side is evident, as well as holding the other side responsible of the hostilities in the war, in the texts, hence having a catalysing role with its coverage in the war. Also, the texts tend to leave out details concerning the other side (the government side), portraying the opposition to be representing the people..

Der Begriff Gesundheit wurde von der WHO definiert als „nicht nur die Abwesenheit von Krankheit, sondern, positiv als Naturrecht formuliert, vollständiges körperliches, seelisches und soziales Wohlbefinden“. Deswegen hat die WHO mit dem Gesundheitsministerium in Syrien das Programm „Gesunde Dörfer“ seit 1996 gestaltet. Es zielt darauf, den wirtschaftlichen, sozialen und gesundheitlichen Zustand der Landbevölkerung zu verbessern, insbesondere soll es den großen Unterschied zwischen Stadt und Land vermindern. Das Projekt stellt sich die Aufgabe, den Einfluss des Programms auf Wirtschafts- und Gesundheitsparameter im Vergleich mit anderen Kontrolledörfern zu analysieren. Hierzu werden Umfragedaten in Syrien ausgewertet. Die Auswertung der Befragung in der vorliegenden Arbeit zeigte, dass das Programm seine Ziele bezüglich der Verbesserung der Gesundheits- und Lebensqualität erreicht Erfolgreich war das Programm „Gesunde Dörfer“ auch, mit Ausnahme der nördlichen und östlichen Region, in der Verringerung der Anzahl arbeitender Kinder, in der Förderung der Frauen eine Beschäftigung aufzunehmen bzw. ein Studium zu absolvieren sowie in der Reduzierung der Analphabetenrate. / “Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity" (WHO definition). Therefore WHO and the Ministry of Health in Syria implemented the "Healthy Villages" program in 1996. It aims at improving the population's economic, social and health condition in the country. It should decrease the big difference in health care between urban and rural populations. The project objective is to statistically analyze the influence of the program on economic and health parameters in comparison with other villages not related to the program. For this purpose, survey data is collected and appraised in Syria. The evaluation of the survey in the present work showed that the program achieved successfully its objectives regarding the improvement of the health and quality of life in the "Healthy villages" program. In addition to the reduction of the number of working children, encouraging women to work and continue studying, as well as to reduce the illiteracy rate. However these results are not applied to northern and Eastern region.

In den vergangenen Jahren wurden in Syrien zahlreiche Gesetze bezüglich Banken und anderer finanzieller Institute verabschiedet. Diese Gesetze haben eine große wirtschaftliche und politische Bedeutung für die syrische Gesellschaft. Im Zuge der Entwicklung Syriens wurden und werden viele Gesetze – sogar das Verfassungsgesetz - geändert, diese Änderungen sind ein geeignetes Thema für Untersuchungen. Andererseits nutzt der Gesetzgeber die Gelegenheit, einige dieser Gesetze an deren internatiuonalen bzw. europäischen Gegenstücken auszurichten. In der vorliegenden Dissertation werden syrische Gesetze – namentlich zur Zulassung privater Banken und über weitere Aspekte der Bankenaufsicht - mit den entsprechenden deutschen Gesetzen verglichen. Der Vergleich beider Rechtsordnungen erscheint trotz des klaren und großen Unterschieds im Hinblick auf Entstehung, Entwicklung usw. beider Länder bzw. Gesellschaften nützlich, um Grundlagen und Grenzen des Voneinander-Lernens zu ermitteln. Eine Bankenaufsicht, die laufende Überwachung und Missbrauchsbekämpfung im Bankwesen bedeutet, hat zum Ziel, mögliche schädliche Auswirkungen der Bankentätigkeit auf die Finanzmärkten und in der Folge auf die Volkswirtschaft insgesamt zu vermeiden. Dies liegt darin begründet, dass der Bankensektor eine bedeutsame Rolle in jeder Volkswirtschaft spielt; daher können Störungen in diesem Sektor katastrophale Konsequenzen für die Gesamtwirtschaft eines Landes haben. Die Ansteckung anderer Länder ist/war immer in der internationalen Geschichte vorhanden und wird durch zahlreiche Beispiele nachgewiesen. Die jüngste Finanzkrise ist dafür erneut ein gutes Beispiel. In der zweiten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts wurde unter dem Druck der Notwendigkeit ei­ner weitgehenden Harmonisierung und einer engen Zusammenarbeit zwischen den Banken-aufsichtsbehörden der Industrieländer der Baseler Ausschuss für Bankenaufsicht in Basel (Schweiz) ins Leben gerufen. Dieser Ausschuss hat sich um eine Harmonisierung der Grundlagen der Bankenaufsicht bemüht. Vor dem Hintergrund der global rasanten Entwicklung - insbesondere der ungeheuer rasch fortschreitenden Technologie bei den Kommunikations- und IT-Systemen und der dadurch global miteinander vernetzten Finanzmärkte, auf denen immer schnellere Transaktionen vor sich gehen - wurde angestrebt, eine internationale Vereinheitlichung der Bankenaufsicht (materielle Standards, Instruemtne zu erreichen. Dem Thema „Basel“ wird daher in dieser Arbeit eine erhebliche Bedeutung zugemessen. Zur Zielsetzung der Arbeit gehört es auch, Schwachstellen in syrischen Bankenaufsichtsgesetzen und den sie ergänzenden Rechtsverordnungen zu erkennen, um aufzueigen, wie mit der internationalen Entwicklung in diesem Bereich besser Schritt gehalten werden könnte.