Some cultures regard pain as a natural part of life compared with the Western culture which believes that pain is something unnatural and that has to be eliminated. Transcultural nursing is a way to learn about and provide culturally fitting and meaningful care to people with different cultures. Tanzania suffers from a lack of qualified health workers due to an increased burden of disease and this affects the quality and supply of effective health services. It has been seen that it is common for patients to get inadequate pain treatment and this results in many different complications. The aim of the study was to describe the nursing care of patients with postoperative pain at a rural hospital in Tanzania. The study was implemented at the Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre in Moshi. A qualitative participating observation study with an ethnographic approach was used to collect the data. The data was analyzed by content analysis and resulted in three themes: 1. The role of the nurse, 2. Pain management, and 3. Meeting the patient. The conclusion was that the nursing care around patients with postoperative pain showed an extended collaboration between the nurses and other health care professionals as well as with the patients’ parents. The study further showed that the atmosphere around the patients was positive and calm and that the nurses assessed pain by measuring vital signs and facial expressions.

This paper compares the effectiveness of an NGO and a government branch at promoting development through gender equality in Tanzania, in an attempt to determine whether one actor is more suited to this sector of development. Due to the nature of the actors, their approaches impact different parts of the population of Tanzania and are complementary in their impact. Both NGO and government efforts can help to empower women and in turn promote economic development in Tanzania.

This thesis investigates whether adoption of partnerships between water utilities and Community Based Organisations (CBOs) in Sub-Saharan Africa can improve water services to informal urban settlements. The study is particularly relevant because over 1 billion of the world's population have no access to clean water supply with many living in urban areas. The lack of adequate resources coupled with insufficiency of conventional approaches has rendered it impossible for urban utilities to deliver sustainable water services to all customers, including the informal settlements. The thesis proposes that partnership between water utilities and CBOs is a viable approach for improving water services to informal settlements. The thesis enhances understanding of the context in which such partnerships could be developed.

The study explores gender representations in English literature texts used in Tanzanian secondary schools. The aim of this research is to raise awareness of, and contribute to, the general discussion regarding gender equality, and about the meeting the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The goals have been adopted by the government of Tanzania since 2000. The third goal (MDG 3) seeks to promote gender equality and the empowerment of women in all levels of education by 2015. The aim of this thesis was to examine the discourses underpinning the teaching of literature in Tanzanian schools in order to examine the extent to which gender representations within the texts, and as mediated by teachers, supports this discourse of equality. The inquiry is explored through a textual analysis of the texts which were used in secondary schools in Tanzania during observation, using postcolonial and feminist perspectives. The study further involved interviewing literature teachers and students, policy makers and curriculum planners and obtained their views about the representations of gender. Data were collected in six schools in three regions of Tanzania, namely Mwanza, Dodoma and Dar es Salaam. Analytical induction has been used to analyse the data collected from interviews and observation. Findings from textual analysis show that some of the texts selected for study do convey strong messages in favour of demarcation between women’s and men’s traits, roles, and occupations, but others do not. Most of this latter group criticise traditional constructions of masculinity and femininity portraying women as subordinate to men and victims of domestic violence, and traditional African practices such as arranged marriage, female genital mutilation and the denial of educational rights. Findings from observations revealed that the texts were tackled relatively uncritically. Teachers rarely encouraged pupils to engage critically with gender issues arising in the texts. Findings from interviews and observation revealed that teachers are not trained to include the goal in their teaching. The thesis concludes that although some of the literary texts have emancipatory aims as revealed in the textual analysis, the gender equality goal is unlikely to be achieved unless the implicit understandings of gender relations in teachers’ classroom practices are addressed. Recommendations are made on how to promote a more critical engagement with gender issues through the teaching of literature in the Tanzanian context.

This bachelor thesis had the aim to investigate how young female students experience their safety situation in their own neighbourhood, around the University of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania. Previous research shows that women tend to feel more fear of crime in public spaces than men, and this feeling is restricting their mobility in time and space. This gender structure is a worldwide phenomenon and is by feminist geographers explained as an expression of the patriarchy. A phenomenological approach was used in this research to gain an understanding of how this gender structure is affecting individual female’s lives. The used method was focus group interviews and two groups were interviewed, with totally seven respondents. The sessions were analysed by using constructivist grounded theory and partly narrative analysis. The interviewees explained that there were certain spaces that they experience as dangerous, foremost dark places without visibility and few people passing. They also stated that places where people had been robbed, raped or kidnapped earlier were more threating. The potential criminal was portrayed as a non-student male, and the male students were described as their potential protectors. The fear was always present in their lives, they felt more or less unsafe in all parts of the campus and even in their homes. This threat restricted their daily mobility in both time and space, and they used different strategies to avoid different types of crimes.

Demographic and Health Surveys from 2015-16 as well as previous research suggest that a majority of women in Tanzania justify intimate partner violence (IPV) and that such violence is very prevalent. Semi-structured interviews with women in rural and urban Babati, Tanzania, were conducted in February-March 2016, in which women gave conditional answers to questions on justification of IPV. The aim of this thesis is thus to offer a theoretical explanation for the ambivalence informants expressed regarding IPV. To do so, the theory of double consciousness, which has not been applied to gender issues before, was applied in a qualitative content analysis of informants’ statements. This thesis will argue that double consciousness offers a plausible explanation for the conditional answers given by informants, since they reflected a two-ness among women, in the form of non-justification of IPV, but ideas about women’s obligations that are incompatible with ideals of gender equality. Women are thus aware of the gender oppression, while they still, to some extent, adapt to it.

The widespread presence of radio in Tanzania suggests that the news being broadcasted nationally has a large public and political impact. In this thesis we examine what roles a few women journalists hold in Dar es Salaam’s radio newsrooms. Our research question concerns how these women journalists perceive their influence in the newsroom during the agenda setting process. We interviewed seven women journalists, who hold varying positions in different radio newsrooms in Dar es Salaam, concerning their perception of their own informal status in the office hierarchy. We then present and analyze key quotes from our respondents using Bourdieu’s theory of social fields and perspective on male domination, Hirdman’s stereotypical gender contract and a postcolonial feminist perspective. Our repondents told us of the importance of empowering other women at the editorial office as well as putting gender issues revolving women and girls on the news agenda. In this way they demonstrate the importance of a gender equal representation in the newsroom and in the news content. We come to the conclusion that our respondents do indeed perceive themselves to have influence over the news agenda and they use different strategies to gain status and recognition in the newsroom.

In this thesis I explore three topics in labour economics, using micro data from South Africa and Tanzania. South Africa suffers from extremely high income inequality, in part as a result of comprehensive Apartheid-era racial discrimination. The first topic explores possible explanations for the extremely large earnings differences across different types of employment for black South Africans, using the KwaZulu-Natal Income Dynamics Study data. I analyse the relative importance of individual ability and institutions, including public sector wage setting and trade unions, in determining earnings. My results suggest that human capital explains much of the earnings differentials within the private sector, including union premiums, but cannot explain the large premiums for public sector workers. Self-employment is very common in urban Tanzania but, unlike South Africa, survey data show that there are large overlaps in the distribution of earnings in private wage employment and self-employment. This suggests that self-employment represents a viable alternative to wage employment in small, low productivity firms for the majority of urban Tanzanians. In chapter three I build an equilibrium search model of the urban Tanzanian labour market to explain the choice of wage and self-employment and the variation in earnings across and within these sectors. In the final topic I explore the effect of education on earnings in Tanzania. Estimating the returns to education has stimulated much recent work in applied econometrics as researchers advance their understanding of the effect of individual heterogeneity on the possibility of estimating the returns to education. In my attempt to purge estimates of the return to education of the influence of individual heterogeneity, I use an education reform in Tanzania as a natural experiment that provides exogenous variation in education. When using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) I find high and strongly convex, increasing returns to education. My best attempt at separating out the effect of individual heterogeneity suggests that returns are still high but that they may actually be concave.

Aside from the introduction and conclusion, this thesis comprises four core chapters: The first chapter investigates the presence of endogenous peer effects in the adoption of formal property rights. Using data from a unique land titling experiment held in an unplanned settlement in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. I show a strong, positive impact of neighbour adoption on the household’s choice to purchase a land title. I also show that this relationship holds in a separate, identical experiment held a year later in a nearby community, as well as in administrative data for approximately 45,000 land parcels in the same city. I also discuss possible channels, including the possibility of complementarities in the reduction in expropriation risk. The second chapter examines the relationship between ethnic heterogeneity and the demand for formal land tenure. Using a unique census of two highly fractionalised settle- ments in Dar es Salaam, I show that households located near coethnics are significantly less likely to purchase a limited form of land tenure recently offered by the government. I attempt to address one of the chief concerns, endogenous sorting of households, by con- ditioning on a households choice of neighbors upon arrival in the neighborhood. These results suggest that close-knit ethnic groups may be less likely to accept state-provided goods if they can generate reasonable substitutes. The third chapter is a short chapter which presents results from a recent policy experi- ment in Tanzania where formal land titles were provided to informal settlers at randomised prices. Land owners were also randomly assigned conditional discounts, which could only be applied if a woman was designated as owner or co-owner of the land in question. Results show that conditionality has no adverse effects on demand for land titles, yet drastically increases the probability a woman is included. We discuss the implications of these results for the expected bargaining power impacts of the intervention. The final chapter investigates birth order effects on both anthropometric and edu- cation outcomes in a longitudinal survey of children from the Philippines. Birth order effects are present early in life for both outcomes, but attenuate as children approach adulthood. There is also evidence for nonlinear birth order effects, with both firstborn and lastborn children holding an advantage over middleborn children. These results are at odds with prevalent theories of birth order which predict lasting and monotonic differences in outcomes across children.

Teacher retention is a global challenge, and many developed and developing countries are struggling to staff and retain teachers in schools, particularly in low-performing, remote, and less desirable areas. In most of these countries, Tanzania in particular, the efficacy of fiscally inclined teachers’ retention strategies continues to be dubious. The aim of this study is to explore teachers’ perceived school level challenges and the support of retaining teachers in remote secondary schools in Tanzania. The study is inspired by a supportive management theoretical framework, particularly Organizational Support, Leader-Member Exchange and Coworkers’ Exchange. It is motivated by a pragmatic knowledge claim. Data were sequentially collected in three phases using interviews and survey questionnaires. A sample included 258 secondary schools teachers from 28 remote schools in the Dodoma region in central Tanzania. Mixed methods data analysis techniques were used. The current study identifies younger males of a well-educated and experienced teaching workforce as being the chief staffing in remote Tanzanian secondary schools. Such a teaching workforce is challenging to retain in remote areas, as it is rarely satisfied with the teaching career and highly susceptible to frequently changing employers and working contexts. Moreover, findings show that teachers perceive problems related to housing, social services, conflicts in schools, the inability to influence changes in schools, the teaching and learning situation and limited opportunities as the chief reasons for not remaining in remote schools. Furthermore, findings show that teachers perceive meaningful retention support as being contextually definitive. The catalyst is high quality exchanges amongst teachers which spearhead the development of intra- and extra-role practices, school citizenship behaviours, intraschool social capital (an investment), all of which could bind teachers together, enhancing performing and supporting each other beyond formal contracts. Such a situation triggers teachers’ beliefs that changes, improvement, adaptability and survival within difficult remote environments is possible, and this consequently influences the intention to voice and/or conversely, to exit. Teachers’ empowerment, justice practices and working voicing arenas are important practices for enhancing retention support, especially in remote areas.