<p>According to earlier research farmer's crop orientation in developing countries mainly depends on farm size, large-scale farmers prefer cash crop while small-scale farmers prefer subsistence crops. The first aim of this study is to see if this hypothesis can be applied on six households in Babati District in rural Tanzania. The second aim is to investigate if other factors than farm size affect crop portfolio choice and the final aim is to see if those crop portfolio models can be improved. A case-study research design and qualitative interviews are used. The primary data is based on a fieldwork that took place from the 18th of February until the 7th of March 2009 in the study area.</p><p>From a theoretical perspective the underlying assumptions of the Marcel Fafchamp's model <em>Crop portfolio choice under multivariate risks </em>is discussed in connection to the result of the study.</p><p>Interviews were made with six households of different farm size. The result of the study indicates that both small-scale and large-scale farmers are using cash crops. The fact that all crops can be used for selling, gives also small-scale farmers in season with higher prices, an opportunity to sell a large share of their crops. It's thereby not possible to state that large-scale farmers devote a larger share of their land for cash crop than small-scale farmers do.</p><p> </p>

<p>Botanical pesticides are agricultural pest management agents which are based on plant extracts. In modern times these have been used as alternatives to synthetic chemicals in organic pest management. The practice of using plant materials against field and storage pests however has a long history in many indigenous and traditional farming communities across the world. During February and March 2009 a field study was conducted in Babati district in Manyara region, Tanzania to investigate the local use of botanical pesticides. The results from the field study were subsequently analyzed and contextualized in Nicanor Perlas model The Seven Dimensions of Sustainable Agriculture which was used as a framework theory. The analysis indicates that there are a variety of thresholds for the use of botanical pesticides in sustainable agriculture in Babati district besides the more obvious practical aspects. The latter parts of the paper discuss the differences between reductionist and holistic, indigenous and scientific ways of achieving knowledge with regard to plant based pesticides. The study concludes that ecological pest management is a holistic method based on the synergy of a variety of farming practices. Indigenous knowledge which is holistic, site-specific and experience based has therefore much to offer modern endeavours to practice a more sustainable agriculture and pest management strategies which consider the welfare of both humanity and the environment.</p>

<p>It is important to investigate how HIV/AIDS  awareness affects adolescent sexual behavior and how the HIV/AIDS information from the schools and the ABC-program (abstinence, be faithful, condoms) affects the students HIV/AIDS awareness and sexual behavior. The methods used in this study consist of qualitative semi-structured interviews, a quantitative questionnaire and statistical analysis (mainly preformed in R). The purpose of this study is to analyze how sexual behavior can be affected by HIV/AIDS awareness. The results from the interviews and the questionnaire were very different. Especially when it comes to the (age of first intercourse), information from the interviews gave the impression of a younger age at first intercourse than the results from the questionnaire did. No evidence was found that adolescent sexual behavior is affected by HIV/AIDS awareness.</p><p>In the context of the ABC-program, the students were not found to be abstinent; due to school regulations that consent to the expulsion of sexually active students it is even possible that the students stated a higher (age of first sexual intercourse) than what is really true. One of the informants stated that some students are as young as eight years of age when they have their first sexual experience (informant 7). The majority of the male students answered that the age of first intercourse is about 15 to 16 years of age and the majority of the female students stated 17-18 years of age or older (table 3, question 8). No evidence in this study supports the hypothesis that adolescent sexual behavior is affected by access to condoms. Condom access did not lead to an increase of the occurrence of sexual relationships nor did it seem to cause a lower age of first intercourse. This was the results that derived form four generalized models that were preformed in the statistics program R (table 4). There seemed to be a notion from some of the informants that the most adolescents are sexually active and the schools reluctance against promoting condoms may lead to the spread of STI’s amongst the students and to unwanted teenage pregnancies. Condoms should be provided for free to all students in secondary schools.</p>

<p>More than 1 billion people in developing countries lack access to safe water and sanitation. Drinking water in these countries is often collected from unsafe sources outside the home. Even piped well water in the developing world can be unsafe due to inadequately maintained pipes, low pressure, intermittent delivery, lack of chlorination, and clandestine connections. Furthermore, drinking water often becomes contaminated after collection, either during transport or during storage in the home. Improvements in water supply, hygiene education and safe storage can reduce the spread of waterborne diseases, such as diarrhoea. However it is not an easy task to combat unsafe drinking water, and several factors have to be taken into account. Correct management of water at the household level is a vital factor in reducing contamination of water in areas where water is not available in the home, and often has to be transported for long distances before storage.</p><p>It is often a woman's responsibility to collect and store water. The aim of this study is to provide an understanding of women’s knowledge and perceptions of the risks associated with drinking water and waterborne diseases in Babati, Tanzania. Furthermore, the study sets out to investigate the methods utilized at the household-level to prevent waterborne diseases. Interviews were the key method to collecting primary data and the results present findings from 20 women in two villages in Babati. All of the respondents had access to community water pipes but none had taps in their household. Among the respondents who treated their water, the most common method of treatment was boiling. The study shows that there is a link between lived experience, perceptions of risk, and the way water is managed in the household.</p>

<p>Climate change caused by green house gas emissions, mainly carbon dioxide, is today’s most debated environmental issue. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, with the legally binding Kyoto protocol, is the emission regulatory framework. Tanzania has ratified both the conventions supporting carbon reductions.</p><p>Tanzania has a very varied climate with two rainfall regimes dominating the country, bimodal and unimodal. Scientific literature predicts a 2,2-4°C average increase in temperature for Tanzania, all studies also predict a higher increase in the cooler period and lower in the warm period. Rainfall predictions are less certain but in general a 10 % average increase is expected but the distribution uneven, both between rain periods and geographically. Tanzanian reports estimate a 5-45 % increase in rainfall in bimodal regions and a 5-15 % decrease in unimodal regions. The distribution of increase in bimodal regions will be uneven, with an increase in the long rain period and a decrease in the short rain period.</p><p>Agriculture is indisputably the most important source of income in Tanzania standing for 80% of employment and 50% of GNP. Climate change will therefore inevitably affect the economy and livelihood of people. Developing countries are also more vulnerable due to lower adaptation capacity. Effects on Tanzania are predicted to be both positive and negative. Maize production, the major staple, is predicted an average 33% decline while cash crops like coffee and cotton are predicted to increase. To be able to adapt there first has to be a perception of need to adapt, adaption strategies then have to be developed and barriers worked through. The purpose of this thesis is to investigate the level of awareness, strategies and barriers existing for adaption to climate change on national, regional and local level, Tanzania nationally and Babati regionally and locally. The research questions are; How do people perceive climate change? What are the strategies for adapting to climate change? What are the barriers for adaption to climate change? At national level policy framework and strategies were used to answer the research questions. At regional and local level a field study was conducted in Babati to answer the research questions at these levels.</p><p>The study showed that Tanzania nationally has declared their conviction in climate change and state that the issue has to be addressed. Agriculture is identified as one of the most vulnerable areas however climate change is not mainstreamed into agricultural and environmental policy framework. In Babati district no policy was found on climate change and official perception varied. Concerns were related to timing and amount of rainfall, the results were the same for farmers. Global climate change was also known for both studied groups and existed as a parallel truth with the local reason for changes. A number of adaption strategies are also identified nationally, both used and potential, where small scale irrigation is the primary adaptive step. Switching to draught resistant crops is also prioritized in the North eastern region. In Babati adaption strategies were promoted, even though there was not a general policy or perception, by officials to switch to short-term crops and planting of trees. Switching cops was also the most commonly used strategy by farmers along with traditional diversification. Nationally a large number of barriers are also identified including, lack of funding, poverty, HIV, lack of infrastructure and analytic capacity. Officials in Babati also mentioned the lack of money, deforestation, lack of clouds, education, irrigation and seeds. The farmers in Babati were not so clear about what they needed to adapt, irrigation, livestock backup, diversification and switching crops were mentioned, not differing much from used strategies.</p>

<p>The aim of this essay was to investigate if different variables affected the distribution of fresh water pulmonate in Babati District, Tanzania. Can the absence of intermediate host be explained by basic vegetation evaluation, pH, conductivity and temperature? Or can it be explained by other factors as animals and vegetation in the surrounding? The study was carried out in Babati District, in Lake Babati, Kiongozi/Farahani River and the irrigation schemes in Matufa and Gichameda from the 23td of February until 7th of March, 2009. The species found during the survey were <em>Biomphalaria, Bulinus, </em>and <em>Lymnea. </em>Only <em>Biomphalaria pfeifferi </em>were present in the genus <em>Biomphalaria</em>. In <em>Bulinus </em>spp.<em>, B. globosus, B. forskalii, </em>and <em>B. africanus </em>were present. <em>Lymnea spp</em>. was represented by <em>L. natalensis</em>. Statistical tests were carried out with logistic models. The results of the statistical analysis revealed different significant results for the different snail species present. <em>L. natalensis </em>showed a significantly positive effect of the water temperature and was distributed in water temperatures ranging from 20.9°C to 24.3°C, which is in the lower range in this study. <em>Biomphalaria pfeifferi </em>and <em>Bulinus spp</em>. were significantly affected to an increase in conductivity. L. natalensis did show a significant effect of the type of bottom in the water body, and found muddy bottoms more suitable. Animal activity (livestock) did show a significant effect on the distribution of <em>L. natalensis </em>which found habitats without animals more suitable. Both <em>B. pfeifferi </em>and <em>L. natalensis </em>were significantly affected by vegetation in the surrounding and found habitats with grass, shrubs and trees more favourable before cultivated areas and forests. The statistical analysis made on the data collected in Babati District showed that temperature, conductivity, bottom in water body and vegetation in the surrounding, in general, significantly affected the fresh water pulmonate. Several variables as pH, water flow, canopy cover, vegetation in the water, however, were not significantly affecting the distribution of the snails. Further investigations of interactive effects of variables, however, are necessary to prevent high infection rates of trematodes infecting the pulmonate present in Babati District, Tanzania.</p>

<p>The aim of this paper is to investigate the impact of free education for all on the primary schools in Babati, Tanzania. The study is based on the fieldwork carried out in Babati district Tanzania, where information was gathered through qualitative methods. The empirical findings are analysed using a World Bank model of how educational inputs affects welfare outcomes. The study examines the millennium development goal with respect to giving every child an education. The study shows that a bigger impact can be seen in an increased enrolment in schools. That was the result of removing the primary school fees. This has resulted in overcrowding in the primary schools, lack of enough teachers, classrooms and learning material. However, over time the performances have improved. In the short term, the removal of school fees increased enrolment but resulted in poor quality of the education. In the long term, these problems are decreasing and the educational sector can now provide education to children that could not afford it before.</p>

<p>This study have two purposes, one is to examine the ideological consistency between Sida’s gender policy and the gender policy of an implemented project, and the other purpose consists of an attempt to identify a relation between the implementation of Sida’s/LAMP’s policies and actual changes on gender equality in the partnering country. Three research questions were formulated around the topics of women’s situation in Tanzania; the ideological origin of Sida’s gender policy and the reflection of these in the LAMP policy; and the consequences of an implementation in terms of equality between men and women in Babati District, Tanzania. The analysis is carried out with the help of different theoretical perspectives on women and gender in development, perspectives that have been selected on the basis that they have been influential and dominating in the contemporary planning and policy making of development agencies. The method used was a functional idea analysis and a field study where semi-structured interviews were conducted. The conclusion regarding the ideological consistency is that a comparison between the policies of Sida and LAMP shows patterns of great ideological resemblance, and that both have a somewhat stronger connection to the GAD approach. The conclusion regarding actual changes on gender equality reveals that an integration of gender aspects into the LAMP programme has had several consequences for women. The programme has helped to reduce women’s work load, increased their chances of income, and promoted women’s participation in decision-making on different levels. These are all aspects that may challenge the traditional order of women’s relationship to men and the subordination of women.</p>

<p>The overall aim was to study self-care, foot problems and self-perceived health in 150 consecutively invited Tanzanian diabetic patients and to compare them with gender- and age-matched Swedish diabetic patients (n=150) from a middle Sweden area. The main study was cross-sectional and took place at a diabetes clinic in Dar es Salaam. All patients answered questions about their self-care satisfaction, diabetes knowledge and skills, and educational needs. Foot examination also included questions about foot-care and perceived foot problems. The patients' health was assessed using the SF-36 general health questionnaire. The Swahili version of SF-36 was pre-tested in 518 Tanzanian diabetic patients showing an acceptable validity and reliability. Glycaemic control was measured by HbA1c. The results indicated that 45% of Tanzanians and 43% of the Swedes reported satisfaction with their self-care. The Tanzanian patients reported that following doctor's advice was the most important factor necessary for feeling well, whereas the Swedish patients emphasised diet and exercise. Lack of drugs and education were reasons of dissatisfaction in the Tanzanian group, whilst the Swedes were dissatisfied with their own behaviour. None of the Tanzanians monitored their blood glucose themselves, whilst 50% of the Swedes did it on a daily or weekly basis. Significantly more Swedes than Tanzanians knew the interaction between insulin, food and exercises, and how to manage hyperglycaemia and hypoglycemia. The Tanzanians wanted more education about diabetes, treatment and injection technique, whereas the Swedes wanted education about psychological aspects of diabetes, foot-care and oral anti-diabetic treatment. Foot problems reported in the Tanzanian group were pain, numbness and pricking sensations, whereas the Swedes reported ingrown toenails, pain and fissures. Seven Tanzanians and one Swede had foot ulcers. Twenty Tanzanians and 103 Swedes reported to inspect their own feet. The Tanzanians had significantly poorer self-perceived health and glycaemic control than the Swedish patients. A follow-up study was performed with the Tanzanian group of patients after two years. Many patients did not return for the second investigation and 70 patients were re-assessed. They showed an improved self-perceived health and a significant decrease in HbA1c-value. In conclusion the results indicated that Tanzanian patients needed better access to a continuous and regular supply of diabetes drugs. Furthermore the Tanzanians' burden of diabetes influenced their possibilities to work, whilst Swedish patients were hindered in social activities. In both countries the importance of regular foot inspections of the patients' feet should be emphasised. Glycaemic control and self-perceived health seemed to be poorly related and for that reason diabetes nurse specialists need to use both measures in order to guide the patients towards the goals experiencing a good health despite having diabetes.</p>

<p>Mobile phones have had a tremendous diffusion rate in Africa in recent years. This has brought access to telecommunication to new user groups, among them Tanzanian fishermen. But how does mobile phone use affect the way fishermen live their lives, how they pursue economic activities and how they protect themselves from vulnerability to risk?</p><p>During a field study in Tanzania, interviews with fish boat captains were conducted in order to investigate what impact mobile phone use has on the livelihood indicators empowerment, opportunity and vulnerability to risk. Our research shows that increased access to information, enabled by mobile phones brings positive effects to all indicators. Mobile phone use empowers, both through increased bargaining power and increased control over external events. Mobile phones give increased knowledge about market opportunities and a possibility to work more efficiently. Furthermore, mobile phones give fishermen a possibility to take measures to decrease the risks they are exposed to, such as emergencies out at sea. The negative effects are found negligible. These effects are most likely not isolated to Tanzanian fishermen. Communication through mobile phones can bring similar advantages to other groups that have earlier been excluded from the communication system.</p>