Cette étude se propose d’aborder, par l’ethnographie, les pratiques plurilingues des Hehe, une population vivant dans la région d’Iringa située sur les hautes terres du sud de la Tanzanie. Ce pays d’une grande diversité linguistique a forgé son unité nationale sur la promotion et l’idéologisation d’une langue particulière, le kiswahili. L’idéologie linguistique dominante qui découle de cette histoire singulière, déconsidère les langues locales et occulte la réalité des pratiques plurilingues du quotidien. D’où le projet d’interroger les choix linguistiques et le recours à l’alternance codique (principalement entre le kihehe et le kiswahili, plus rarement l’anglais) dans deux villages de la région d’Iringa : à L’École, primaire et secondaire, à l’Église, catholique et protestante, dans une radio locale, au centre d’un village, chez des particuliers, au sein d’un groupe de jeunes et dans des bars d’alcool artisanal. L’analyse de ces interactions permet d’appréhender les dynamiques concurrentielles en termes de prestige et de sphères d’usage, entre le kihehe, le kiswahili et l’anglais ; de même, elle révèle par touches successives différents aspects des représentations linguistiques de nos interlocuteurs, leur attachement affectif aux langues, ainsi que la possibilité d’un positionnement identificatoire « entre les langues » mobilisé à la fois par la maîtrise du kiswahili et du kihehe. En ce sens, la présente thèse propose une contribution d’anthropologie linguistique à la question du plurilinguisme, visant à en renouveler l’approche. / This study proposes to access the plurilingual practices of the Hehe, a population that lives in the Iringa region located on the Southern Highlands of Tanzania through ethnographic research. This country possesses a great linguistic diversity and has built its national unity from promoting and ideologising one specific language: Kiswahili. The dominant linguistic ideology that stems from this singular history undermines the local languages and conceals the reality of day-to-day plurilingual practices. Hence the project to question linguistic choices and code-switching (mainly between Kihehe and Kiswahili, less frequently English) in two villages of the Iringa region and more specifically in School, primary and secondary, Church, catholic and protestant, a local radio station, at a village center, at private homes, among a group of young people, and in homemade alcool bars. The analysis of these interactions allows for an understanding of the competitive dynamics in terms of prestige and field of uses between Kihehe, Kiswahili and English; likewise, it reveals through successive steps different aspects of the linguistic representations of our interlocutors, their emotional attachment to languages, as well as the possibility of an identifiying position “between languages” activated by the mastery of both Kiswahili and Kihehe. Within this context, the present thesis proposes a linguistic anthropology contribution towards the question of plurilingualism with a view to renewing how it can be approached.

Using Tanzania as a case-study, this dissertation approaches the land grab issue in Tanzania with the following two main research question: How are new farmland investments shaping political dynamics and actors’ interactions in Tanzania? And, how actors’ interactions between and within levels of governance influence farmland investments’ outcomes at the local level? I tackle these questions by proposing an original theoretical framework which is based on two main assertions. First, local outcomes associated with farmland investments in Tanzania result from actors’ interactions. Second, these interactions are shaped by the interplay between three main elements: contingencies (C), actors’ agency (A), and structure (S). I use the acronym CAS to refer to these three elements. CAS, by combining various theoretical insights, is analytically productive because it furthers our understanding of what shapes relations among actors, and accounts for how their interactions change in time and space. It contributes significantly to the literature on land grabbing by proposing a unified analytical tool that builds up on the relational perspective that has been proposed by different scholars. In addition, CAS allows researchers to overcome misleading categorisations and to question dominant narratives that have been associated with the land grabbing literature. This dissertation is divided into 9 chapters. After the usual literature review (Chapter 1), theoretical framework (Chapter 2) and method (Chapter 3) chapters, Chapter 4 gets into the crux of the matter by first briefly presents Tanzania’s historical trajectory, with a specific focus on land policies in order to introduce this thesis’s empirical chapters, and to situate the reader in regards to Tanzania politics. Chapter 5 analysed land policies and related politics at the national level. It highlighted that actors’ interactions in relation to new farmland investments participate to the process of state formation. Chapter 6 and Chapter 7 both adopted a local perspective to capture the impacts associated with new farmland investments in district political arenas. More specifically, chapter 6 highlighted the importance of not overstating the authority of the central state, rather insisting on the key role played by intermediaries in Rufiji district. Chapter 7, seeking to capture how a specific investment has restructured the local political agrarian economy in Missenyi district, argued that Kagera Sugar safeguards its operational profitability by creating locally mediated market relations. It led to the emergence of new local patrons who used their position to benefit and foster their own material interests at villagers’ expense. Chapter 8 adopted a micro perspective, examining the political dynamics associated with investors-related land conflicts in a village in Missenyi district. I compared and explained why actors’ interactions are different even in the same institutional context, highlighting that the same local context may produce different CASs. In sum, this dissertation’s main findings are as follow. First, investments’ local impacts are contingent on investments’ terms of inclusion and exclusion that are constantly being negotiated between numerous actors. Second, although all actors exert their agency, their very capacity to negotiate and shape the social structure is partly influenced by structural constraints themselves. Third, it is interesting to note that specific local actors—and not necessarily the most powerful—such as district officials win almost every time, at least more than all the others. Although their place in the institutional architecture is decisive, it also shows that their capacity and ability to exert their agency is crucial: these district officials may have known better than others how to play their cards in the new Tanzanian farmland investment game. Fourth, even though processes through which new farmland investments affect the local political economy vary according to structural components (historical and institutional legacies), in both districts, the associated local outcomes were very similar. There are few exceptions, but the general trend in Tanzania is that most of the benefits associated with new farmland investments, the commodification of land and the increase of capital flows, are captured by government officials and political elites.

Abstract “LANDSCAPES SUBLIME: IMPERIALISM, THE WILDERNESS IDEAL AND THE HISTORY OF CONSERVATION IN TANZANIA" The aim of this dissertation is to trace the implications that Western views of nature have had for the restructuring of African landscapes through the creation of game reserves and national parks, with a particular focus on Tanzania. I contend that wilderness spaces are the main repositories of a western imaginary that longs for those places where nature is prodigious and untamed, uncontaminated by development and devoid of people. The idealization of landscapes is derived from the aesthetic of the Romantic sublime with its dual impulse: the quest for escape from a fragmenting and morally corrupting capitalist society, and the search for the immutable and the transcendent in landscape 'untouched' by development. In Africa the physical manifestation of the wilderness landscape ideal came to be reflected in real space – the space of the East African national park. To produce a wild landscape in which animals roam free required the reproduction of a certain ideology of nature which may have been inaugurated during the colonial period, but which has been assimilated and even expanded by post-colonial regimes like Tanzania. Why is it, I ask, that the wilderness landscape ideal is so remarkably persistent in the post-colonial, post-socialist Tanzania of today? Taking the approach of scholars like Mitchell, I ask not just what landscape ‘is or ‘means’ but what it does in this context.

thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. March 17, 2015. / A two-level facility location problem (FLP) arose in the transport network of maize crop in Tanzania has been studied. The three layers, namely, production centers (PCs), distribution centers (DCs) and customer points (CPs) are considered in the two-level FLP. The stochastic e ect on the two-level FLP due to rainfall in the network links, between the DCs and CPs, has been studied. The ow of maize crop from PCs to CPs through DCs is designed at a minimum cost under deterministic and stochastic scenarios. The three decisions made simultaneously are: to determine the locations of DCs (including number of DCs), allocation of CPs to the selected DCs, allocation of selected DCs to PCs, and to determine the amount of maize crop transported from PCs to DCs and then from DCs to CPs. We have modelled the problem and generate results by optimizing the model with respect to optimal location-allocation strategies. We have considered two networks, the existing network and an extended network. In the existing network there are four PCs, ve DCs and ninety three CPs. In the extended network three additional DCs are considered. For the modelling purpose we have used the rainfall data from 2007 - 2010 in each week for 17 weeks. The optimized results for the existing network have shown improvements in cost saving compared to the manually operated existing network. In the extended network, the results have shown much more e cient and cost saving distribution system compared to the results of the existing network.

Mongomi wa Kolo is a hunter-gatherer rock art site within the Kondoa district of Central Tanzania. The site is part of a large group of rock art sites in Kondoa that were collectively declared a National Monument by the Antiquities Act of Tanzania, enacted in 1964 and amended in 1979. In July 2006, the World Heritage Committee inscribed the rock art of Kondoa as a World Heritage Site, acknowledging its international significance, its authentic beauty and living heritage. Mongomi wa Kolo is a focal point for regular ritual practices among the Bantulanguage speaking Warangi and Wasi/Waragwa communities in Kondoa District, Central Tanzania. The Warangi and Waragwa migrated to this area at the start of the third century. Since this time they have been using Mongomi wa Kolo for traditional ritual ceremonies. Currently, the management of Mongomi wa Kolo has sought to control the ritual ceremonies of Warangi and Wasi/Waragwa communities because some rites are damaging the archaeology and rock paintings of the site. This control has led to a conflict between local ritual practitioners and authorities responsible for heritage management. Management of living heritage is new to the Tanzanian cultural heritage authority. This study explores the implications of including living heritage in the management at the archaeological World Heritage Site of Mongomi wa Kolo. Examples are drawn from other World Heritage Sites that manage living heritage. Specifically this study considers how best to integrate living heritage within the management of the Mongomi wa Kolo rock painting site. It then discusses the challenges of adapting the Tanzanian Antiquities legislation to cover living heritage. This study will be achieved through a review of the history of the management of living heritage, international and national legislation protecting living heritage, and interviews undertaken with elders, traditional practitioners, communities around Kolo and nearby villages, and with staff of the Antiquities Department.

This thesis applies the food security concept to assess the significance of seagrass-associated invertebrate gleaning for providing food security in Kaole, Tanzania. It assesses the availability, accessibility, utilisation and stability over time of this food source. To explore this, a multi-strategy research design was used. Structured interviews were held with 30 gleaning women in Kaole, using a self-developed questionnaire designed to address the four components of the food security framework. Two focus group discussions were thereafter held to explore how local ecosystem services, in particular seagrass meadows, and their food provisioning services have developed over time. The findings show that a great majority of the women who engage in seagrass- associated gleaning in Kaole rate this activity as important or very important for providing food to the household. The seagrass-associated gleaning activities were perceived as important, despite the fact that most women also glean in the mangrove area and that almost all women have alternative incomes. However, seen from a strict food security perspective, it is questionable how significant this activity currently is for food security. The study found that availability has decreased and it is not a food source that is stable throughout the year. The findings also suggest that the mangrove-associated Terebralia palustris may be easier to utilise, considering that you can store it in a sack, without being kept cold. If mangrove related gleaning hence seems to play an increasingly important role in local food security, and is a fishery that is available in all seasons, this area is less accessible to potential gleaners with small children, elderly and people with physical disabilities. The study also found that the decline in seagrass-associated gleaning activities have coincided with a number of human stressors and deteriorating seagrass meadows. Despite its’ declining signinficance for food security, most women rate the seagrass-associated gleaning as important and want to protect this food source. Action should therefore be taken to sustainably preserve this provisioning resource. Bearing in mind the fine balance between ecological and food security needs, such measures need to be interdisciplinary. It also needs to involve different community members, as well as other stakeholders. More research would be needed to determine the nutritional content and potential toxic contents in the most fished invertebrate species.

At the largest university in Tanzania, University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM), the gender distribution is unequal. At the University’s Department of Mathematics (DoM), the number of women ranges between 20-30 %. As a PhD degree can pose an important bridge into higher academic positions, the purpose of this study is to discern the current prerequisites for women to complete a doctoral degree at UDSM, compared to their male colleagues. The thesis is based on a field study carried out at DoM, in the spring of 2018. As such, both the formal and the perceived conditions could be examined. During the field study, both focus groups and individual interviews were held. By means of Grounded Theory, a mainly inductive method, the empirical framework obtained from the field research has guided the study and recurrent observations from the local context analysis have shaped the results. As the methodological outset for the study also draws on abductive reasoning, it results in that the analysis is concurrently theoretically guided and based on obtained data. The conclusions from the field research show that the conditions for female and male PhD students at UDSM are not equal. There are policies, quotas and other initiatives introduced in an attempt to level the playfield, however, other policies and social norms that create challenges for women in their strive for an academic career are still in motion. Among other things, as women are expected to be the primary caretaker and there are no support systems in place, the decision to start a family affects women’s studies more than men’s.

O objetivo deste trabalho foi analisar a produtividade do capim Panicum maximum Jacq cv Tanzânia cultivado em casa de vegetação sob tratamentos de lâmina de irrigação e adubação nitrogenada durante 10 ciclos de produção (10 x 35 dias) na região de Piracicaba-SP. O capim foi cultivado em ambiente protegido sob os seguintes tratamentos: a) lâmina de irrigação L25, L50, L75, L100 e L125% da Evapotranspiração da Testemunha e doses de nitrogênio D0, D30, D60, D110 e D270 kg N ha-1 ciclo-1, totalizandose 25 tratamentos distribuídos em 4 blocos. Observou-se que os tratamentos sem deficiência hídrica apresentaram diferença significativa na produtividade de forragem nos ciclos de verão e não significativa nos ciclos de inverno. A estacionalidade de produção do capim Tanzânia (verão / inverno) foi praticamente equivalente (65 / 35%) nos tratamentos intermediários de irrigação (50, 75 e 100%), para os tratamentos extremos de irrigação 25 e 125%, a estacionalidade de produção aumentou: 67 / 33 % e 75 / 25%, respectivamente. O coeficiente de resposta da cultura à deficiência hídrica (ky) variou entre 0,75 e 0,80. A eficiência de utilização da água do capim Tanzânia foi de 36,0 e 16,6 kg MS mm-1 ha-1 respectivamente para os tratamentos L25 e L125. Com base no modelo matemático ajustado é possível estimar a produção do capim Tanzânia em função da disponibilidade de água e nitrogênio para a região de Piracicaba - SP. / The objective of this work was to analyze the productivity of the grass Panicum maximum Jacq cv Tanzania during 10 growing cycles (10 x 35 days) in the region of Piracicaba-SP. The grass was cultivated under rainfall controlled conditions, subjected to the following treatments: a) irrigation depths L25, L50, L75, L100 and L125% of the control plot (field capacity condition - l00%) and nitrogen doses D0, D30, D60, D110 and D270 kg N ha-1 cycle-1, totalizing 25 treatments distributed among 4 blocks. It was observed that the treatments without water deficit had presented significant difference in the productivity of the forage plant during summer growing cycles and not significant difference during winter growing cycles. The irrigation did not modify the effect of the seasonal pattern of forage production and in fact had aggravated if in the treatments with more intensive fertilization.The seasonal pattern of forage production (summer / winter) was equivalent (65 / 35%) in the intermediated irrigation treatments (50, 75 and 100%), for the extreme irrigation treatments (25 and 125%) it was observed an increase in the seasonal pattern 67 / 33% and 75 / 25, respectively. The pasture coefficient of reply (ky) to water deficit varied between 0,75 and 0,80. The Tanzania grass efficiency of water use was of 36,0 and 16,6 kg MS mm-1 ha-1 respectively for the treatments L25 and L125.

O nitrogênio, dentre os nutrientes, é o elemento que apresenta maior efeito sobre a produção de gramíneas forrageiras. As respostas da planta forrageira a adubação nitrogenada podem ser alteradas devido à condição, de área foliar remanescente e teores de nutrientes, que esta planta apresenta quando este nutriente é aplicado. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram avaliar as características morfogênicas e estruturais, o intervalo entre pastejos, acúmulo de forragem e os teores de nutrientes do capim Tanzânia submetido a distintas severidades de desfolhação e fertilidades contrastantes. Os tratamentos corresponderam a combinações entre três alturas de resíduo pós pastejo (20, 30 e 50 cm) e dos níveis de fertilidade de solo (sem adubação e com adubação equivalente a 500, 300 e 150 Kg/ha de nitrogênio, K2O e P2O5 respectivamente), totalizando seis tratamentos sendo que cada tratamento contou com cinco repetições dispostas em blocos totalizando 30 unidades experimentais. Cada unidade experimental correspondia a um piquete de 400 m2. O pastejo foi efetuado quando o dossel forrageiro interceptava 95% da luz incidente. A morfogênese foi avaliada pelas seguintes características: taxa de aparecimento de folhas (TApF), filocrono (FIL), taxa de alongamento de folhas (TAlF), taxa de alongamento de colmos (TAlC), taxa de senescência de folhas (TSeF), duração de vida da folha (DVF), comprimento final da folha (CFF), número de folhas vivas por perfilho (NFV), número de folhas em expansão por perfilho (NFEx), número de folhas expandidas por perfilho (NFE), número de folhas senescentes por perfilho (NFS) e comprimento do colmo (CC). Foram avaliados os teores de nutrientes presentes nas duas folhas recém-expandidas. A amostra foi composta pelo terço médio do limbo foliar de 100 folhas retiradas de 50 perfilhos sendo que a amostragem foi realizada na condição de pré pastejo nos meses de abril e maio de 2010. As adubações criaram um contraste nutricional entre os tratamentos avaliados. O tratamento adubado com maior severidade de desfolhação apresentou os melhores resultados quanto ao acúmulo líquido de forragem e taxas de alongamento foliar. Os resultados obtidos neste experimento indicam a possibilidade de melhoria da eficiência de pastejo e de produtividade animal quando alta fertilidade de solo é combinada a maior severidade de desfolhação. / Nitrogen is the most important nutrient regulating pasture production. Response to N fertilization depends on residual leaf area index and other nutrient availability. The aim of this study was to evaluate morphogenetic and structural characteristics, grazing interval, forage yield and nutritional status of Tanzania guinea grass under contrasting defoliation severities and fertilization rates. The six treatments evaluated were factorial combinations between three post grazing heights (20, 30 e 50 cm) and two fertilization rates (unfertilized and fertilized with 500, 300 and 150 kg/ha of nitrogen, K2O e P2O5 respectively), arranged in five completed blocks, totaling 30 paddocks (experimental units) of 400 m² each.25 beef cattle animals were introduced into paddocks to graze every time sward reached 95% of light interception.Measured responses were leaf appearance rate, phyllochron, leaf elongation rate, stem elongation rate, leaf senescence rate, leaf life span, leaf mature length, live leafs per tiller, elongating leafs per tiller, mature leafs per tiller,senescent leafs per tiller and stem length.Nutritional status was measured in the two younger mature leavesof each tiller, considering 100 leaves sampled from 50 tillers of each paddockbetween May and April 2010. Fertilized and unfertilized treatments presented contrasting nutritional status. A high fertilization level combined with the lowest post grazing height resulted in the higher forage yields and leaf elongation rates. The results point to the possibility of enhancing grazing efficiency and animal production when high fertilizations are combined with high grazing intensity

Small-scale fisheries represent an important sector for Tanzania’s economy and the contribution to the livelihood of people. In Lake Babati, fish stocks are decreasing, mainly because of illegal fishing methods. This study therefore aims at examining how the problems of illegal fishing affect the fishermen, as well as their perceptions of the implemented fish ban. By using semi-structured interviews, a seasonal calendar and a Venn diagram, the data was analysed through a Critical Institutionalist lens. The results show that the fish ban has not improved the situation and that the fisheries co-management in Lake Babati is weakly practiced. Furthermore, the complexity of socially embedded relations constrains the organisation among the fishermen. As a response to the inadequate management, the fishermen suggest other solutions for preventing illegal fishing.