Yes / Electricity Suppliers in competitive electricity markets commonly respond to prices changes which are fluctuating over time, but most consumers respond to the price changes as reflected on their electricity bills. Almost all consumers pay fixed tariffs for their consumption without distinctions based on usage time, so these consumers have had no incentives to reduce their use during the peak times. This paper aims to analyze the influence of different tariff schemes on consumer behaviours in UK domestic buildings. A realistic half hourly electricity load profile for different types of UK households that based mainly on public reports and statistics has been generated. This load profile data were used to help calculate the expected change in consumers' bills under standard tariffs offered from different suppliers to what the cost of electricity would be under time varying tariff (economy7 tariff) and to estimate of how much consumers would shift their load in response to price changes without changing total consumption, for which the results are presented and discussed / MSCRC

本文採用 Grossman and Helpman (1994) 所建立的政治獻金模型為架構，來分析國內外廠商如何透過政治獻金的捐贈，以達到影響政府對於貿易管制政策中關稅或配額政策的偏好，進一步我們可得出關稅與配額等價性成立與否之結論。本文研究發現，首先，在兩國廠商皆無政治獻金遊說的情況下，關稅與配額等價性的命題不會成立。其次，在兩國廠商有政治獻金遊說的情況下，除了一個特例的情形外，本國政府均會偏好採用從量關稅政策，此時，關稅與配額等價性的命題將無法成立。 / This paper applies the original model of Grossman and Helpman (1994) and analyzes how the domestic and foreign firms may influence the incumbent government’s choice of trade policy via political contributions. Besides, we can examine whether the arguments for the equivalence of tariffs and quotas, may in fact hold or not given the political contributions. It is shown that in the case of no campaign contributions, the equivalence of tariffs and quotas will not hold. Furthermore, when the firms in the two countries lobby by political contributions, the domestic government will adopt a tariff policy except some special case. Then the equivalence of tariffs and quotas will not hold.

Orientador: Luiz Carlos Pereira da Silva / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Elétrica e de Computação / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-25T04:17:06Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Tome_MauriciodeCastro_M.pdf: 1294997 bytes, checksum: 7f957ff745612ef36a77596912782f07 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014 / Resumo: O presente trabalho procura analisar o aquecimento elétrico de água no setor residencial e seu impacto no perfil de tensão, perdas e energia total acumulada. Por meio de simulações computacionais com uma rede de teste, juntamente com dados de uso dos eletrodomésticos mais comuns no ambiente residencial (separados por região, devido às diferentes condições e padrões de consumo das mesmas), foi possível estimar a quantidade de energia utilizada referente ao chuveiro elétrico, bem como o impacto no perfil de tensão e as perdas na distribuição decorrentes do uso do mesmo. Além disso, também foram analisadas as propostas de tarifação branca da ANEEL e as propostas homologadas pelas concessionárias, e seu impacto na conta de luz do consumidor residencial, para três padrões de consumo: consumo total não modificado, consumo do chuveiro deslocado e consumo do chuveiro eliminado. Na parte de impactos na rede de distribuição, confirmou-se que a utilização do chuveiro elétrico, que é praticamente uma exclusividade brasileira, representa uma parcela significativa do consumo total de uma residência, além de ser um dos maiores responsáveis pelo pico de consumo no setor residencial, o que causa um afundamento no perfil de tensão e aumento nas perdas na distribuição, características indesejadas na operação do sistema elétrico. Já na parte do consumo residencial, foi visto que os postos tarifários homologados pelas concessionárias reduzem em muito os ganhos possíveis com o deslocamento do horário de carga do chuveiro, de forma que a chance de uma adoção significativa da tarifa branca pelos consumidores é baixa. Por outro lado, uma adesão maciça dos consumidores poderia fazer com que o consumo do chuveiro fosse deslocado do horário de ponta e se concentrasse no horário imediatamente posterior, o que pode agravar a situação atual em termos de pico de consumo / Abstract: This thesis presents an analysis of the electricity based water heating in the Brazilian residential sector and its impacts on the electric grid voltage profile, losses and total energy consumption. Using computer simulation through a test network, and considering the most common household appliances' usage data, it was possible to estimate the total energy used by the electric shower, as well as its impact on voltage profile and distribution losses. Moreover, it is also analysed the time of use (TOU) tariff proposed by ANEEL and the consolidated tariffs proposed by the Brazilian utilities, and its impacts in the customers' energy bill, for three load patterns: unmodified, electric shower demand moved off-peak, and without electric shower. Results about the impact on distribution networks confirmed that the electric shower usage (which is almost exclusive to Brazil) represents a large amount of the electric energy used by the residential customers, and, in addition, it is a major contributor to the peak loading of the residential sector, causing voltage drop and increased distribution losses, which are undesired in electric distribution systems. In terms of household consumption, it was possible to conclude that the utilities' approved time-of-use tariffs give little margin for possible savings in the electricity bill in comparison with ANEEL's initial tariff proposal, so that TOU adoption will probably be very low. On the other hand, a massive adoption of the off-peak shower usage by the customers could cause a concentration in its usage in a later time, which would eventually worsen the actual peak hour scenario / Mestrado / Energia Eletrica / Mestre em Engenharia Elétrica

The Non-Agricultural Market Access Negotiations (NAMA) are being undertaken as part of the Doha Round of negotiations. NAMA negotiations are aimed at the trade liberalisation of industrial goods. Pursuant to the ‘development agenda’ adopted for the Doha Round, the NAMA negotiations also emphasise the development component. Particular emphasis is be made on tariff reductions in products of export interest to developing countries and the negotiations are to take special account of the needs and interests of developing countries, including through less than full reciprocity in accordance with the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) provisions on special and differential treatment (SDT). This research attempts to determine this ‘development agenda’ through the prism of special and differential treatment as provided for in the NAMA mandate. An analysis of the SDT provisions in the World Trade Organisation (WTO) and their application within the multilateral trading system reveals that SDT is a very controversial concept. Developing countries have used SDT to escape the strictures of multilateral trading rules and developed countries have used it as a ‘carrot and stick’ tool, to gain concessions from developing countries in other areas. SDT has further been revealed as a concept whose meaning and content is not very precise. While the provisions in the GATT as well as the Enabling Clause make good political and economic sense, they are not really actionable. This is because the concept is characterised by best-endeavour provisions that lack any legal force and cannot be adjudicated in the WTO Dispute Settlement Body. Developed countries have thus not been called and cannot be called, legally, to account for lack of delivery on their commitments and obligations with regard to SDT. This has effectively constrained the use of SDT as a development tool within the WTO, and, being the only tool being utilised, there needs to be found an alternative way to address development needs in the WTO. The WTO has sought to address this through efforts to amend SDT to make it more precise, effective and operational. The content and meaning of the ‘development agenda’ itself in the Doha Round is very elusive and an effort is made in this paper to determine the appropriate meaning of development in relation to the multilateral trading system. Development as an objective in the WTO is not novel to the Doha Round. The WTO is littered with references to development and the betterment of the human condition in its preamble to agreements and other provisions. Development has to be considered in al its three dimensions: social, political and economical. While this paper does not advocate that the WTO become a fully fledged development institution, it can shape its development agenda in such a way that benefits on the economic front are designed to stimulate socio-economic development as well. An analysis of the NAMA modalities reveals that mercantilist objectives have triumphed in the negotiations and SDT has been lost by the wayside. Developed countries have sought for radical tariff reductions on the part of developing countries, with meagre flexibilities that are further constrained by requirements that no full sector be excluded from the formula cuts. SDT has not been considered and the commitments are not proportional to the development capacity of most developing countries. This is in direct contradiction to the SDT provisions in the GATT that are supposed to guide the negotiations as well as the provision on tariff negotiations. However, the modalities are not legally contestable because the SDT provisions do not hold any legal suasion. The NAMA negotiations reveal a development vacuity within the WTO that needs to be resolved by other means other than the traditional SDT. Taking into consideration the evolving power bases and the politics of the membership of the WTO, this is an imperative. This paper proposes that Aid for Trade is the best option available to the WTO system. The concept does find support in GATT/WTO provisions on SDT and can be modified to be more predictable and sustainable. / Dissertation (LLM)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Centre for Human Rights / unrestricted

[pt] Os sistemas de transmissão cumprem uma função vital para o bom desempenho dos mercados de energia elétrica. A precificação do seu uso afeta diretamente a remuneração das empresas concessionárias e os custos dos participantes do mercado. No Brasil, os usuários do sistema interligado nacional (SIN) devem pagar pela disponibilização dos equipamentos que compõem a rede para as transmissoras detentoras destes ativos de forma proporcional ao seu uso. Assim, a agência reguladora brasileira (ANEEL) estabeleceu as tarifas de uso do sistema de transmissão (TUST), que são calculadas anualmente por barra via metodologia nodal. Tais tarifas são compostas por duas parcelas: locacional e selo. A parcela locacional reflete o uso efetivo da rede por cada agente participante, medindo o impacto da injeção de potência marginal de uma barra nos equipamentos do sistema. A parcela selo consiste num valor constante que garantirá a remuneração da porção não utilizada da rede. Em geral, a proximidade elétrica das barras do sistema implica valores tarifários similares. Esta Dissertação de Mestrado propõe uma nova metodologia a ser incorporada no cálculo da TUST, considerando a divisão do SIN em zonas tarifárias de transmissão (ZTT). Desta forma, cada ZTT apresentará uma única tarifa a ser aplicada aos seus participantes, que corresponderá à média ponderada das tarifas finais calculadas via metodologia nodal. Para a identificação das ZTT, são aplicadas técnicas de agrupamento k-Means e espectral nos sistemas IEEE-RTS e SIN. Nesta dissertação, avalia-se também o uso de modelos matemáticos para definir o número ideal de ZTT a ser considerado. São realizadas diversas análises de sensibilidade relativas a mudanças de despacho, alterações de topologia e evolução do sistema ao longo dos anos. Os resultados correspondentes são então extensivamente discutidos. / [en] Transmission systems play a vital role in the good performance of the electrical energy markets. The pricing of its use directly affects the budget of concessionary companies and the costs of market participants. In Brazil, users of the national interconnected system (NIS) must pay for the equipment availability that makes up the network to the transmission companies that own these assets in proportion to their use. Thus, the Brazilian regulatory agency (ANEEL) established the tariffs for transmission system usage (TTSU), which are calculated annually by bus using the nodal methodology. Such tariffs are made up of two installments: locational and postage stamp. The locational portion reflects the effective use of the grid by each participating agent, measuring the impact of the marginal power injection at a bus on the system equipment. The stamp portion consists of a constant amount that will guarantee the remuneration of the unused portion of the network. In general, the electrical proximity of the system buses leads to similar tariff values. This dissertation proposes a new methodology to be incorporated into the TTSU calculation, considering the division of the NIS into transmission tariff zones (TTZ). In this way, each TTZ will present a single tariff to be applied to its participants, which will correspond to the weighted average of the final tariffs calculated via the nodal methodology. For the identification of the TTZ, k-Means and Spectral clustering techniques are applied to the IEEE-RTS and SIN systems. In this dissertation, the use of mathematical models is also assessed to define the ideal number of TTZ to be considered. Various sensitivity analyses are carried out regarding changes in dispatch, grid topology and expansion of the system over the years. The corresponding results are deeply discussed.

Customs duty represents an inescapable financial obligation in international trade. Such duties are determined by valuing the imported goods according to the classification of the goods. To classify the goods under an appropriate tariff heading is notoriously difficult – despite the almost trite principles from judicial decisions amongst the jurisdictions discussed in this study, such as the European Union, Australia, Canada and the United States of America. In South Africa, the Customs and Excise Act 91 of 1964 defines the ambit of customs duties and ratifies the Harmonised System ("HS"). The HS allows for a uniform approach to tariff classification used by countries across the world accounting for in excess of 95% of the world trade. Countries that employ this system are obliged to incorporate the HS into such country's domestic legislation and to use all headings and subheadings of the HS without addition or alteration, together with the numerical codes and to apply the General Rules for Interpretation and all section, chapter and subheading notes. Classification of goods is to be done objectively at the time of presentation of the goods to the tax authorities. The intentions of the importer or the descriptions of the goods in advertisements and manuals constitute inadmissible evidence. In the recent judgment of Smith Mining Equipment (Pty) Ltd v The Commissioner: South African Revenue Service1 ("Smith Mining") the court, however, opined that it was not obliged to consider the notes referred to above, in the absence of evidence on use of the specific vehicles at the different locations allowed for in the Tariff Headings. The Court expected the importer to present evidence on use and relied on evidence from the manual, whilst it ignored the evidence that the importer presented structured along the applicable tariff notes. The court's approach clamped on the Additional Rules in the USA and the more liberal approach applied in Canada, but stands in conflict with the approach in the European Union and the trite principles from the South African case law. / LLM (Import and Export Law), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Customs duty represents an inescapable financial obligation in international trade. Such duties are determined by valuing the imported goods according to the classification of the goods. To classify the goods under an appropriate tariff heading is notoriously difficult – despite the almost trite principles from judicial decisions amongst the jurisdictions discussed in this study, such as the European Union, Australia, Canada and the United States of America. In South Africa, the Customs and Excise Act 91 of 1964 defines the ambit of customs duties and ratifies the Harmonised System ("HS"). The HS allows for a uniform approach to tariff classification used by countries across the world accounting for in excess of 95% of the world trade. Countries that employ this system are obliged to incorporate the HS into such country's domestic legislation and to use all headings and subheadings of the HS without addition or alteration, together with the numerical codes and to apply the General Rules for Interpretation and all section, chapter and subheading notes. Classification of goods is to be done objectively at the time of presentation of the goods to the tax authorities. The intentions of the importer or the descriptions of the goods in advertisements and manuals constitute inadmissible evidence. In the recent judgment of Smith Mining Equipment (Pty) Ltd v The Commissioner: South African Revenue Service1 ("Smith Mining") the court, however, opined that it was not obliged to consider the notes referred to above, in the absence of evidence on use of the specific vehicles at the different locations allowed for in the Tariff Headings. The Court expected the importer to present evidence on use and relied on evidence from the manual, whilst it ignored the evidence that the importer presented structured along the applicable tariff notes. The court's approach clamped on the Additional Rules in the USA and the more liberal approach applied in Canada, but stands in conflict with the approach in the European Union and the trite principles from the South African case law. / LLM (Import and Export Law), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

The purpose of this study is to examine possible tariff designs for a Swedish DSO to better reflect the individual’s future use of the grid when it comes to the expected effects of EV. A qualitative research method with a combination of an experimental and comparative case study design was carried through. The literature review involved data gathering within the subjects of grid tariff design, pricing of natural monopolies and behaviour related to electricity use. Empirical data consisted of quantitative data from the grid in combination with interviews of 5 respondents. With a systematic combining approach, the theoretical framework, empirical data and analysis evolved simultaneously. The results were analysed through emerging themes and evaluated with simulations. The study has shown that a static and easy to understand tariff is preferable. A reflective way to price distribution of electricity does not imply a correct breakdown of allocating costs to direct causes of them. When designing the tariff, a DSO must be aware of the psychological barriers and consequences a tariff design can induce. By that we find the combination of a fixed, demand and ToU component should give incitements well enough to make customers mindful of how they use their electricity. During a transition to a new tariff design, a customer focus approach should be used, were transparency and simplicity are keywords. The future could imply a shift from static to dynamic tariffs designs in which enabling technologies will have to ease the complexity for the customer in order to break down the psychological barriers.

Daniel Conk 5 January 2012 Thesis Abstract This thesis is an empirical research on the impact that preferential trade agreements have on the welfare of individuals and nation-states. As the number of preferential trade agreements has been growing steadily, the on-going clash between regionalism and multilateralism will be a key topic throughout the research. Fair trade movements have been becoming more popular over the fast few years as some organizations have strived to raise consumers awareness regarding the great disparities among the profit margins of the producers or farmers in developing countries in comparison to those of the merchants and distributors in developed countries. Even though quantitative data will be used in order to portray the growing economic inequalities present in today s world, arguments will also be supported on grounds of ethics and morals relating to social justice.

Magister Legum - LLM / Over the past decade countries have embraced globalisation. The depth and influence of globalisation has grown significantly since the 19th century. Globalisation has accelerated mainly due to increased integration in trade with bilateral, regional and multilateral trade negotiations on the rise. Multinational companies have also enlarged which enable production to be done seamlessly in different countries, increase in capital flows such as purchase of assets and bonds has also contributed. Furthermore, the surge on technological innovations and advancement cannot be ignored when one speaks of globalisation this era has been dubbed the technological era additionally there is also the role of migration which enhances labor movements. The world has rapidly shrunk to one global economy. After the World War II countries began to move away from protectionism to liberalised trade and this resulted in the formation of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) then the World Trade Organisation (WTO) which is comprised of 164-member states. The WTO regulates trade and promotes free trade. Over the years the organisation has been evolving to deal with issues such as climate and technical assistance. Global trade presents challenges which may give rise to the need for countries to protect their domestic industries for political and economic reasons.