O núcleo talâmico mediodorsal (Tmd) e o córtex pré-frontal (CPF) comunicam-se mutuamente, formando um circuito envolvido em funções executivas e transtornos psiquiátricos. As funções executivas estão sujeitas aos níveis de alerta gerados pela atividade oscilatória talamocortical, que por sua vez é controlada pela transmissão colinérgica. Possivelmente, a plasticidade sináptica do circuito Tmd-CPF é sensível tanto aos padrões oscilatórios do próprio circuito quanto à modulação colinérgica. Porém, esta possibilidade ainda não foi testada, muito menos dissociando-se a participação dos receptores muscarínicos e nicotínicos. Assim, nosso objetivo foi examinar como a plasticidade Tmd-CPF é modulada sob estados oscilatórios globais mediados pelo sistema colinérgico, e se esta modulação varia com os tipos de receptores recrutados. Anestesiamos ratos com uretana e implantamos um eletrodo de estimulação no Tmd, um eletrodo de registro no CPF e uma cânula de microinjeção acima do ventrículo. Emitimos 90 pulsos elétricos no Tmd (0,05 Hz) para evocação de potenciais pós-sinápticos de campo (PPSCs) basais no CPF por 30 min. Em seguida, aplicamos injeção intraventricular do agonista muscarínico pilocarpina (PILO), do agonista nicotínico nicotina (NIC), ou veículo-controle (VEIC). Os efeitos das substâncias sobre potenciais de campo locais (eletrencefalograma) foram monitorados através dos mesmos eletrodos. PILO e NIC induziram aumento das oscilações rápidas (4-80 Hz) e proporcional redução das oscilações lentas mantidas pela anestesia (0,5-4 Hz) e tais efeitos duraram ~10-15 min, conforme padronização prévia das concentrações das drogas. Justamente durante este período, aplicamos estimulação em alta frequência (EAF) ou baixa frequência (EBF) para indução de, respectivamente, potencialização (PLD) ou depressão (DLD) de longa duração, que são modelos bem conhecidos de plasticidade sináptica. Em grupos-controle, a injeção de PILO, NIC ou VEIC foi desacompanhada de EAF/EBF. Por fim, retomamos a coleta de PPSCs a 0,05 Hz por 240 min. Os resultados mostraram que a EAF não afetou os PPSCs quando aplicada após VEIC. Porém, nos ratos PILO e NIC, os PPSCs tiveram amplitude aumentada a partir de 150 min após EAF, indicando que a pré-ativação colinérgica foi necessária à indução de uma PLD tardia. Inversamente, quando a EBF foi aplicada após VEIC, a amplitude dos PPSCs foi reduzida de modo estável por 240 min. Isto não ocorreu quando a EBF foi aplicada após PILO e NIC, sugerindo que a modulação colinérgica suprimiu a DLD. Nos grupos-controle, PILO, NIC e VEIC sozinhos não afetaram os PPSCs em longo prazo, confirmando que os resultados de PLD e DLD são devidos a uma interação entre a pré-ativação colinérgica e mecanismos sinápticos desencadeados pela EAF/EBF.Portanto,as oscilações rápidas induzidas pela transmissão colinérgica favorecem a PLD no circuito Tmd-CPF, enquanto dificultam sua DLD. Além disto, os efeitos muscarínicos e nicotínicos sobre a plasticidade de longo prazo são iguais, apesar de os mecanismos celulares destes receptores serem diferentes. Nossos achados ajudam a esclarecer a regulação do sinal talâmico no CPF sob modulação colinérgica fisiológica (atenção e sono paradoxal) e disfuncional (esquizofrenias e doença de Alzheimer). / The mediodorsal thalamic nucleus (MD) and the prefrontal cortex (PFC) communicate with each other, constituting a circuit involved in executive functions and psychiatric disorders. Executive functions are subject to arousal levels driven& by the thalamocortical oscillatory activity, which in turn is controlled by the cholinergic neurotransmission. Possibly, the MD-PFC synaptic plasticity is susceptible to both the oscillatory patterns within the MD-PFC circuit and the cholinergic modulation. However, this likelihood is still untested, as well as the specific roles of muscarinic and nicotinic receptors. Thus, our aim was to evaluate whether and how the MD-PFC plasticity is modulated under cholinergic system-dependent oscillatory states of the forebrain, and if such modulation varies with the subtypes of activated cholinergic receptors. For that, we anesthetized rats with urethane to implant a stimulating electrode into the MD, a recording electrode into the PFC, and a microinjection cannula above the ventricle. We applied 90 monophasic square pulses into the MD (0.05 Hz) for recording of basal field postsynaptic potentials (fPSPs) in the PFC for 30 min. Then, we did an intraventricular injection of either the muscarinic agonist pilocarpine (PILO), the nicotinic agonist nicotine (NIC), or a control vehicle (Veh). The drug effects on local field potentials (electroencephalogram) were monitored through the same electrodes. PILO and NIC induced an increase in theta, beta and gamma oscillations (4-80 Hz) with proportional reduction of urethane-driven delta waves (0.5-4 Hz), and these effects survived approximately 10-15 min according to pilot-experiments on PILO and NIC concentrations. During this period, we applied either high-frequency (HFS) or low-frequency stimulation (LFS) for induction of respectively long-term potentiation (LTP) or depression (LTD), which are well-known synaptic plasticity models. In control groups, the injection of PILO, NIC or Veh was not followed by the HFS/LFS. Lastly, we resumed the evoking of fPSP at 0.05 Hz for an additional 240 min. The results showed that the HFS did not affect the fPSPs when applied after the Veh. However, in PILO and NIC rats the fPSP had their amplitudes increased from 150 min after HFS, indicating that the cholinergic pre-activation was required for the induction of a late-phase LTP. On the other hand, when the LFS was applied after the Veh, the fPSP amplitudes were stably decreased for 240 min, which did not occur when the LFS was applied after PILO and NIC, suggesting that the cholinergic modulation suppressed the LTD. In the control groups, PILO, NIC, and Veh by themselves did not change fPSPs in the long term, reinforcing that the LTP and LTD were due to an interaction between the cholinergic pre-activation and synaptic mechanisms triggered by the HFS/LFS. Therefore, the rapid oscillations induced by the cholinergic transmission favor LTP in the MD-PFC loop, while occlude its LTD. Moreover, the muscarinic and nicotinic effects on long-term plasticity were equal, although their quite distinct cell mechanisms. Our findings might help clarify the regulation of thalamic signals on the PFC both under physiological (attention and rapid-eye-movement sleep) and dysfunctional (schizophrenia symptoms and Alzheimer\'s) cholinergic drive.

Des études récentes ont montré le rôle clé de la ligne médiane ventrale du thalamus (noyaux Reuniens et Rhomboïde; ReRh) dans la persistance d’une mémoire spatiale chez le Rat qui nécessite un dialogue hippocampo-préfrontal pour une consolidation au niveau des systèmes. Etant donné que l’environnement enrichi (EE) favorise la récupération d’une mémoire de type déclarative après une lésion diencéphalique (thalamus antérieur) et augmente la plasticité neuronale, nous avons évalué son impact sur la consolidation/rappel d'une mémoire spatiale ancienne en piscine de Morris (25 jours post-acquisition) chez le rat après une lésion des noyaux ReRh. Pour cela, nous avons exposé les animaux pendant 40 jours à un environnement enrichi débutant 2 semaines après la lésion excitotoxique thalamique. En outre, l’expression du gène précoce, c-fos, a été cartographiée en immunohistochimie comme marqueur de l'activité neuronale dans l'hippocampe dorsal, le cortex préfrontal médian (mPFC), les noyaux intralaminaires du thalamus et l’amygdale. L’EE a permis la récupération des capacités de persistance d’une mémoire spatiale chez les rats lésés ReRh, accompagnée d’effets bénéfiques sur l'anxiété et l'habituation à un nouvel environnement. L’immunohistochimie de la protéine Fos a montré un recrutement plus élevé des neurones du mPFC associé à la récupération fonctionnelle chez les rats ReRh enrichis, alors que les rats ReRh élevés en condition standard ont présenté un défaut d’activation dans cette région associé à une altération des performances de mémoire. De plus, l’hyperactivité de l’amygdale induite par la lésion chez les rats ReRh standard à la fois en condition basale et après le rappel d’une mémoire a été significativement atténuée dans le groupe ReRh enrichi. Ainsi, nous avons suggéré que l'amygdale pourrait être impliquée dans les effets de la lésion ReRh sur la perte des capacités de rappel d’une mémoire ancienne, mais aussi dans la récupération fonctionnelle associée à la restauration de l’activité du mPFC au rappel de cette mémoire chez les rats lésés enrichis. / Recent studies have shown the key role of the ventral midline thalamus (Reuniens and Rhomboid nuclei; ReRh) in spatial memory persistence in rats, which requires a hippocampo- prefrontal dialogue for consolidation at the systems-level. As enriched environment (EE) promotes the recovery of declarative-like memories after diencephalic (anterior thalamus) lesion, and enhances neuronal plasticity, we tested its impact on the effects of the ReRh lesion upon the consolidation/retrieval of a remote spatial memory in a Morris water maze (i.e. 25 post-acquisition days). For this purpose, we exposed rats for 40 days to an enriched environment beginning 2 weeks after fiber-sparing excitotoxic thalamic lesions. In addition, the expression of the immediate early gene, c-fos, was mapped by immunohistochemistry as a marker of functional activity in the dorsal hippocampus, the median prefrontal cortex (mPFC), the intralaminar thalamic nuclei and the amygdala. Enriched housing allows the recovery of spatial memory persistence capacities in ReRh rats, with additional beneficial effects on anxiety and habituation to a novel environment. Immunohistochemistry of the Fos protein showed a higher recruitment of the mPFC, concomitant with memory capacities recovery in enriched ReRh rats, while in standard ReRh rats, Fos expression in the mPFC was significantly decreased together with the alteration of memory performance. The lesion-induced amygdala hyperactivity in basal and memory conditions was significantly attenuated in the ReRh enriched group. We suggested that amygdala might be involved in the effect of ReRh lesion on memory persistence, and also in the functional recovery associated with the restoration of the mPFC activity during remote memory retrieval in enriched ReRh rats.

Thèse numérisée par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal. / Parmi la multitude de fonctions que le système visuel effectue, la perception du mouvement est l'une des plus importantes. Il a été clairement démontré qu'il existe des sites cérébraux spécifiques pour la détection, l'analyse et l'intégration du mouvement. De façon classique, les mécanismes neurophysiologiques qui sous-tendent ces processus sont attribués aux aires corticales. Le thalamus quant à lui, est généralement considéré comme un « relais passif », c'est à dire qui transmet l'information sensorielle vers le cortex sans modifier le signal entrant. Le but de ce projet sera de préciser les mécanismes nerveux impliqués dans la perception et l'intégration du mouvement et plus précisément, la contribution des régions cérébrales sous-corticales et corticales intimement liés par des connexions réciproques. Ces régions sont: le complexe LP-pulvinar, situé dans le thalamus, l'aire extra-striée postero-médiane suprasylvienne (PMLS) et le cortex ectosylvien visuel antérieur (AEV); deux régions corticales ayant un rôle spécialisé dans l'analyse du mouvement. Les expériences ont été réalisées sur des chats adultes normaux anesthésiés. Une microélectrode d'enregistrement a été descendue dans ces trois sites afin d'enregistrer l'activité des neurones. Les réponses neuronales à des réseaux sinusoïdaux, des patrons texturés (« bruit visuel ») et des « plaids » ont été caractérisé pour étudier les mécanismes qui sous-tendent l'intégration du mouvement au niveau cellulaire. Afin de caractériser d'avantage ce lien, l'influence des aires corticales sur les propriétés thalamiques a été déterminée par inactivation locale réversible (i.e. micro-injection de l'acide y-aminobutyrique; GABA) ou par inactivation permanente plus vaste (i.e. ablation chirurgicale). Les résultats de cette étude se résument comme suit : 1) les propriétés des réponses neuronales du PMLS au bruit visuel sont similaires à celles du LP-pulvinar. Ce résultat suggère que les processus d'analyse impliquant une boucle cortico-thalamique PMLS-LP sont comparables au niveau cortical et sous-cortical. 2) les neurones du PMLS et du LP peuvent coder le mouvement relatif entre un objet et son arrièreplan. De plus, l'inactivation réversible du LP perturbe ces réponses au niveau du PMLS. Ces résultats sont essentiels dans l'établissement d'un lien fonctionnel entre ces deux régions quant à l'analyse de certains aspects du mouvement. 3) certains neurones du complexe LP-pulvinar sont capables d'intégrer l'information directionnelle telle que définie par des « plaids ». Ceci constitue la première démonstration de propriétés de haut-niveau en dehors du cortex. De plus, cette découverte suggère que le LP-pulvinar participe de façon parallèle et en coopération avec le cortex dans l'analyse de scènes visuelles complexes via l'exploitation des boucles cortico-thalamiques. Les résultats de cette étude sont importants non seulement pour appuyer des notions théoriques novatrices sur le rôle du thalamus, mais aussi dans le but de réévaluer et de préciser les mécanismes nerveux qui sous-tendent la perception du mouvement et l'intégration sensorielle en général. / Among the multitude of functions the visual system carries out, the perception of motion is one of the most important. It has been clearly demonstrated that the visual system contains numerous specialised areas implicated in the detection, analysis, and integration of motion. Classically, the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying these processes have been uniquely attributed to regions of the cerebral cortex. The thalamus for its part, has generally been regarded as a passive relay transferring information to the cortex without any modification of the sensory signal. The purpose of this study is to investigate the neurophysiological mechanisms implicated in the perception and integration of motion and more specifically, delineate the contribution of cortical and subcortical structures that are intimately related via reciprocal connections. These areas are: the LP-pulvinar complex; located in the thalamus, and the extrastriate posteromedial lateral suprasylvian (PMLS) and anterior ectosylvian visual (AEV) cortical areas; two regions whose role in motion analysis are well established. Experiments were carried out on normal adult anaesthetised cats. A recording microelectrode was descended in one of the aforementioned areas to record neuronal activity. Neuronal responses to drifting sine-wave gratings, moving texture patterns ("visual noise"), and "plaid patterns" were recorded in order to investigate the mechanisms underlying the integration of motion information at the neuronal level. As a continuation of the study, the influence of cortical motion areas on recorded thalannic responses will be determined by local reversible deactivation (i.e. microinjection of y-aminobutyric acid; GABA) or by irreversible deactivation (i.e. surgical ablation). The results of the study are as follows: 1) Response properties of PMLS neurons to moving texture patterns are similar to those found in the LP-pulvinar connplex. These results suggest that motion processing along both components of the PMLS-LP cortico-thalamic loop is carried out within a similar envelope of analysis. 2) Neurons in both PMLS and LP are able to code the relative motion of an object with respect to its background. Furthermore, reversible deactivation of LP disrupts these responses in PMLS. These results are important in establishing that both these areas are functionally linked in the analysis of specific aspects of motion. 3) The fact that pattern-selective responses to moving plaids can be found in the LP-pulvinar complex suggests that this area is capable of carrying out higher-order motion computations. The importance of this later results is two-fold. First, these findings represent the first demonstration that higher-order properties exists outside extrastriate cortical areas. Second, they further suggest that certain thalamic nuclei, via the establishment of cortico-thalamic loops, participate in parallel and in co-operation with the cortex in the analysis of complex visual scenes. The results of this study are important not only to reinforce current and novel theoretical notions regarding the role of the thalamus, but also in the re-evaluation of the neurophysiological mechanisms involved in motion perception and sensory integration as a whole.

Σκοπός της παρούσης εργασίας είναι η βιβλιογραφική αναζήτηση, παράθεση και επιβεβαίωση παλαιότερων τεχνικών που έχουν χρησιμοποιηθεί κατά καιρούς για τη βέλτιστη στόχευση και ηλεκτρικό ερεθισμό δομών των βασικών γαγγλίων και του θαλάμου, αλλά και η αναζήτηση νέων τεχνικών που θα μπορούσαν να χρησιμοποιηθούν τόσο κατά τη διάρκεια του χειρουργείου όσο και μετά από αυτό. Το κύριο μέρος της εργασίας είναι η εύρεση νέων συνδυαστικών τεχνικών οι οποίες επηρεάζουν τη στόχευση των εν τω βάθει πυρήνων, και πιο συγκεκριμένα την διεγχειρητική στόχευση του υποθαλάμιου πυρήνα κατά την διάρκεια στερεοτακτικής και λειτουργικής νευροχειρουργικής Παρκινσονικών ασθενών, καθώς και ο καθορισμός συγκεκριμένων τροχιών μικρο/μακροηλεκτροδίων οι οποίες να μπορούν να εγγυηθούν μακροχρόνια θετικά κλινικά αποτελέσματα. Προτού αναφέρουμε λεπτομερώς αυτές τις τεχνικές, αναλύουμε τον τρόπο λειτουργίας του εν τω βάθει εγκεφαλικού διεγέρτη, αναφέρουμε κάποια ιστορικά ορόσημα στην ανάπτυξη της στερεοτακτικής και λειτουργικής νευροχειρουργικής και αναφέρουμε τους διαφόρους πυρήνες που έχουν διεγερθεί κατά καιρούς για την αντιμετώπιση των συμπτωμάτων διαφόρων νευρολογικών παθήσεων. Επίσης αναφέρουμε αρκετά ανατομικά στοιχεία (συνοδεία σχεδίων) των υπό διέγερση περιοχών καθώς και τη φυσιολογία που εμπλέκεται έτσι ώστε να έχουμε μείωση ή και εξάλειψη των διαφόρων νευρολογικών/ψυχιατρικών συμπτωμάτων. Αναφερόμαστε στη γενικότερη εφαρμογή του ηλεκτρισμού στην ιατρική καλύπτοντας τόσο το κεντρικό όσο και το περιφερειακό νευρικό σύστημα, σε ασθένειες οι οποίες παρουσιάζουν νευρολογικές και ψυχιατρικές εκφάνσεις, ενώ αναλύουμε και διεξοδικά τον μηχανισμό δράσης νευρολογικών ασθενειών από μοριακό επίπεδο μέχρι των αλλαγών που παρατηρούνται στα μετρήσιμα ηλεκτρικά πεδία τόσο των εν τω βάθει δομών όσο και του φλοιού. Στο τελευταίο κεφάλαιο αυτής της εργασίας αναλύουμε τις μετρήσεις μας που ελήφθησαν από 7 Παρκινσονικούς ασθενείς κατά τη διάρκεια χειρουργείου για την στόχευση και ερεθισμό του υποθαλάμιου πυρήνα, και αναφέρουμε πως με τη χρήση μη γραμμικής δυναμικής και χάους μπορούμε να επιτύχουμε το βέλτιστο κλινικό αποτέλεσμα. / The objective of the present thesis is the bibliographical research, instantiation and confirmation of various techniques that have been occasionally used for the most optimal targeting and electric stimulation of basal ganglia nuclei and thalamus, as well as the finding of new innovative techniques that can be used so much intraoperatively as much postoperatively. The main part of this thesis is the finding of new combined techniques that influence the targeting of deep brain nuclei, and more specifically the targeting of subthalamic nucleus during functional neurosurgery in parkinsonian patients, as well as the determination of specific trajectories of micro/macroelectrodes which can guarantee long-lasting positive clinical results. Before we report in detail these techniques, we analyze the function of the deep brain stimulator, we report certain historical landmarks in the growth of stereotactic and functional neurosurgery and we report the various nuclei that they occasionally have been stimulated for the amelioration of symptoms of various neurological diseases. Also we report many anatomical information (accompanied by drawings) of the areas under stimulation as well as the physiology that is involved so as to induce amelioration of various neurological/psychiatric symptoms. We have analyzed the more general application of electricity in the medicine covering so much the central as much the peripheral nervous system, the symptoms of diseases that present neurological and psychiatric manifestations, while we have analyzed in depth the mechanism of action of neurological diseases from molecular level up to the changes that are observed in the measurable electric fields from both deep brain nuclei and the cerebral cortex. In the last chapter of this thesis we analyze the electric activity that was measured intraoperatively from scalp and deep brain electrodes of 7 parkinsonian patients during targeting and stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus, and we report that with the use of non linear dynamics and chaos we can achieve the most optimal clinical result.